i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. * 





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JEM 

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♦UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.! 



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PRINCIPLES 

OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

DEFINED AND ILLUSTRATED; 



TO WHICH AES ADDED 



COPIOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING, 



FALSE SYNTAX FOR CORRECTION. 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF 



SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 



- 



BY ELIJAH A. BURNS. 



CINCINNATI : 

PUBLISHED BY APPLEGATE <fc COMPANY, 

43 Main Street. 

1865. 







<,* 



Entered accordiog to Act of Congress, in the year 18C5, by 

ELIJAH A. BURNS, 

In the District Court of the United States for the Southern District 
of Ohio. 



PEBFACE. 



After long experience in teaching the most approved 
systems of English Grammar, the author ventures to offer 
to the Public a work of his own, which he believes will 
greatly abridge the labor of students, in acquiring a cor- 
rect and practical knowledge of the principles of the 
English Language. 

A thorough acquaintance with our own language, is an 
acquisition which transcends every other literary accom- 
plishment. No person will be likely to deny this, when 
he remembers that the greater part of whatever knowledge 
he possesses, be it much or little, has been derived through 
the medium of his vernacular tongue. 

The English Language is preeminently the Language 
of Liberty, Progress and Civilization. Many of the ancient 
and modern languages have contributed their richest gems 
to improve and embellish it; and it is admitted by the 
most erudite critics, that it affords a greater variety of 
appropriate words for expressing lofty and sublime thought, 
than any other language spoken by man. 

At present, those who use the [English Language, sur- 
pass all the rest of mankind in morality, refinement, and 
useful invention ; and perhaps, the time is not very far 
distant, when they will control the Literature and Politics 
of the World. In view of this, no American student should 



IV PREFACE. 

consider his education finished, until he is perfectly fa- 
miliar with the agreement and government of the English 
Language. 

In preparing this volume for publication, it has been 
the Author's design to furnish schools with a system of 
definitions, rules, and parsing exercises, suited to the 
capacity of individuals and classes of every grade; and 
it is hoped that those who introduce it into their schools, 
will find it well calculated to accelerate the progress of 
their pupils, in the arduous study of English Grammar. 



CONTENTS, 



Page. 

Of Language. . . . . . . .9 

Of Grammar, 10 

English Grammar, 11 

Etymology, 12 

The Noun, 12 

The Verb, 12 

The Pronoun, 12 

The Adjective, 13 

The Adverb, . 13 

The Participle, 13 

The Conjunction,. . 13 

The Preposition, 14 

The Interjection, 14 

Of Nouns, 14 

Of Gender, 18 

Of Person, 20 

Of Number, 21 

Of Case, . . . . ..... 24 

Declension of Nouns, 26 

Models for Parsing Nouns in their various positions, 28 

Exercises in Parsing, ....... 3£ 

Of Verbs, 38 

Of Moods, 40 

Of Tenses^ 42 

Illustrations of the Tenses in the Different Moods, . 44 

Of Person and Number, 45 

Conjugation of Verbs, ....... 46 

Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verbs, ... 46 

Forms of the Verb, 49 

Of Voice, 50 

Conjugation of the Regular Transitive Verb To Love, 50 

Conjugation of the Irregular Transitive Verb To See, 57 

Conjugation of the Verb To Be, . . . . : 63 
Conjugation of the Verb To Write in the progressive 

form, 67 

List of the Irregular Verbs, 71 

Of Defective Verbs, 76 

Models for Parsing Verbs, ..... 76 



Vi CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Exercises in Parsing, 82 

Of Pronouns, 85 

Of Personal Pronouns, 85 

Declension of the Personal Pronouns, . . . 86 

Compound Personal Pronouns, 87 

Of Relative Pronouns, 88 

Models for Parsing the Personal Pronouns, . . 90 

Models for Parsing the Relative Pronouns, . . 93 
Model for Parsing Compound Pronouns, . . .94 

Exercises in Parsing, 95 

Of Adjectives, 97 

Comparison of Adjectives, ...... 100 

Numeral Adjectives, 101 

Definitive Adjectives, 101 

Model for Parsing Adjectives, 104 

Exercises in Parsing, 106 

Of Adverbs, 108 

Classes of Adverbs, 108 

Models for Parsing the Adverb, . . . . .111 

Exercises in Parsing, Ill 

Of Participles, 113 

Model for Parsing the Participle ; . . . .114 
Exercises in Parsing, . . . . . . .115 

Of Conjunctions, . . ■ 116 

List of the Conjunctions, 116 

Model for Parsing Conjunctions, . . . . 117 

Exercises in Parsing, .117 

Of Prepositions, 119 

A List of Prepositions, 120 

Model for Parsing the Preposition, . . . . 121 

Exercises in Parsing, 121 

Of Interjections, . . . ... . . 123 

A List of Interjections, . . ... . . . 123 

Model for Parsing the Interjection, . . . . 124 

Exercises in Parsing, 124 

Promiscuous Exercises in Parsing, .... 126 

Syntax, . . 133 

Rules of Syntax, 134 

Rule 1. Of the Nominative to a Verb, . . . 134 
Rule 2. Of the Nominative Case Independent by 

Address, 136 

Rule 3. Of the Nominative Case Absolute, . . 136 
Rule 4. Of the Nominative Case Independent by 

Exclamation. 138 

Rule 5. Of the Nominative Case Independent by 

Pleonasm, . . 139 

Rule 6. Of the Possessive Case, 139 



CONTENTS. Vll 

Page. 
Eule 7. Of Words in Apposition, .... 142 
Rule 8. Of the Objective Case governed by a Transi- 
tive Verb, 145 

Rule 9. Of the Objective Case governed by a Prepo- 
sition, 147 

Rule 10. Of Collective Nouns conveying the Idea of 

Unity . . . 150 

Rule 11. Of Collective Nouns conveying the Idea of 

Plurality, . . . . • , . . .151 
Rule 12. Of Singular Nominatives taken Disjunc- 
tively, . . 152 

Rule 13. Of two or more Nominatives taken in Con- 
nection, . i • . . . . . . 154 

Rule 14. Of the Agreement of Personal Pronouns 

with the Nouns which they Represent, . . 156 
Rule 15. Of the Agreement of Relative Pronouns with 

their Antecedents, 159 

Rule 16. Of the Relative when there is no Interven- 
ing Nominative, 163 

Rule 17. Of the Relative when there is an Interven- 
ing Nominative . . . . . . . 164 

Rule 18. Of the Verb and its Nominative,. . . 166 
Rule 19. Of Intransitive and Passive Verbs when 

they have the same Case after them as before them, 169 
Rule 20. Of the Government of Verbs in the Infini- 
tive Mood, . . 172 

Rule 21. Of Verbs in the Infinitive Mood after bid, 
dare, need, make, see y hear, feel, help, let, and their 
Participles. . . . . . . . .174 

Rule 22. Of Adjectives, , 176 

Rule 23. Of Adjectives denoting Unity, .. . 179 
Rule 24. Of Adjectives implying Plurality, . . 181 
Rule 25. Of Participles, . ■ . . . . .182 
Rule 26. Of the Government of Participles, . . 184 

Rule 27. Of Adverbs, 185 

Rule 28. Of Conjunctions, . . . . . .189 

Rule 29. Of Conjunctions, continued, . . . 190 
Rule 30. Of Conjunctions, continued, .... 191 

Rule 31. Of the Case of a Noun or a Pronoun follow- 
ing than or as, . 193 

Rule 32. Of the Relative of Prepositions, . . 196 
Rule 33. Of Interjections, . . . . .197 

Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax, . . . 197 
Promiscuous Exercises in Parsing, .... 199 

Prosody, . . . . . . • . . .211 

Pronunciation, « .... . . . 211 

Versification, . - 212 



Vlll 



CONTENTS. 



Of Iambic Verse, . 

Of Trochaic Verse, 

Of Dactylic Verse, . 

Of Anapestic Verse, . 

Of Poetic Pauses, . 

Figures of Speech, 

Metaphor, . . 

Simile, . . « 

Personification, 

Allegory, . . * . 

Irony, .... 

Hyperbole . 

Metonymy, 

Antithesis, . 

Synecdoche, 

Climax, 

Paralipsis, . . • 

Apostrophe, 

Erotesis, or Interrogation, 

Ecphonesis, ot Exclamation, 

Vision, .... 

Punctuation, 

Of the Comma, 

Rules for the U&e of the Comma, 

Of the Semicolon, . 

Of the Colon, 

Of the Period, 

The Note of Interrogation. 

The Note of Exclamation, 

Of the Parenthesis^ . 

Of the Dash, . 

Of Brackets, 

Of the Apostrophe, 

Mark of Accent, 

Of the Caret, . 

Of the Hyphen, . 

Marks for the Long and Short 

Of the Dieresis, . 

Of the Paragraph, . 

Of the Section, . 

Quotation Marks, . 

The Index, . 

The Ellipsis, . 

The Circumflex, . 

The Breve, 

Th« Macron, 

The Brace, 

Of Capital Letters, 



Vowels, 



OF LANGUAGE. 



Language, taken in its widest sense, is the 
instrument by which the thoughts and affec- 
tions of the mind and body are conveyed from 
one animal to another. In this sense, the in- 
ferior races of animals possess the powers of 
language; for by various inarticulate sounds, 
they make known their wants, desires, and 
sufferings. Thus, the lowing of the ox, the 
barking of the dog, and the chirping of birds, 
constitute the language of those creatures ; and 
individuals of each species understand instinc- 
tively their own peculiar language. 

The emotions of the mind are frequently 
made known by signs, as smiles, kind looks, 
frowns, gestures of the body # ; or by inarticulate 
sounds, as groans, sobs, cries, laughter. The 
first may be called natural language, the second 
inarticulate language. 

Language, in a more limited sense, is the 
utterance of articulate sounds for the purpose 
of communicating thought. 

Articulate sounds are distinct, separate, 
modified sounds formed by jointing or articu- 
lation of the organs of speech. 
2 



10 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Man is the only terrestrial being that is 
capable of expressing ideas by means of articu- 
late sounds. 

THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. 

In reference to the Origin of Language, 
philologists have maintained three opinions. 

1. That it was the pure gift of God, communi- 
cated to man, as from a teacher to a pupil. 

2, That it was an invention of man, which his 
social nature compelled him to contrive for the 
purpose of communication. 3. That it is a 
natural and necessary result of his organization, 
as much as reason. 

The last opinion is probably correct. Wil- 
liam von Humboldt observes, "According to 
my fullest conviction, speech must be regarded 
as naturally inherent in man; for it is alto- 
gether inexplicable as a work of his understand- 
ing in its simple consciousness. We are none 
the better for allowing thousands and thousands 
of years for its indention. There could be no 
invention of language unless its type already 
existed in the human understanding. Man is 
man only by means of speech, but in order to 
invent speech, he must be already man." 

OF GRAMMAR. 

Grammar is the art of speaking and writing 
correctly ; and as a science, it treats of the 
natural connection between ideas and words, 



ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 11 

and explains the principles which are common 
to all languages. These principles are not 
arbitrary, nor subject to change, but fixed and 
permanent; being founded on facts and distinc- 
tions established by nature. Thus the distinc- 
tion between the sexes ; between things and 
their qualities; between unity and plurality; 
between the present, past, and future time, and 
many other distinctions, have their origin in 
nature, and give rise to different classes of 
words, and to various modifications and inflec- 
tions in all languages. 

Particular Grammar applies general prin- 
ciples to a particular language, modifying them 
according to the established usage of the best 
speakers and writers. Hence, the established 
practice' of the best speakers and writers, is the 
standard of grammatical propriety in the use 
of any language. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language correctly. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Or- 
thography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography teaches the nature and powers 
of letters, and the just method of spelling 
words. 

As a knowledge of Orthography is usually 
obtained from spelling books and dictionaries- 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a treatise on that subject is not thought neces- 
sary here. 

Etymology treats of the classification, inflec- 
tions, and derivation of words. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar, which 
teaches the proper arrangement of words in the 
construction of sentences. 

Prosody treats of the pronunciation of words, 
the laws of versification and punctuation. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the classification, inflec' 
tions, and derivation of words. 

There are nine classes of words, commonly 
called parts of speech ; namely, the Noun, Verb, 
Pronoun, Adjective, Adverb, Participle, Conjunc- 
tion, Preposition, and Interjection. 

THE NOUN. 

A Noun is a name ; as, jield, town, house, non- 
entity, Ohio, Columbus, Frankfort 

THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word which signifies to exist, 
to act, or to endure action ; as, I am, I rule, 
I am ruled. 

THE PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word substituted for a noun, 
to prevent the repetition of the same word ; as, 
Hugh came, but he came too late; Louisa can 



ETYMOLOGY. 13 

read ; but she cannot write ; the earth is a 
large globe ; its diameter is about eight thou- 
sand miles. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word used to express the 
quality of a noun, or to define the extent of its 
meaning ; as, a wise man, a good man, a great 
man, a benevolent man, a man, the man, one 
man, two men, this man, these men, that man, 
those men, each man, every man, any man, some 
men, alt men. 

THE ADVERB. 

Advefbs are words used to modify the sense 
of verbs, participles, adjectives, and other ad- 
verbs ; as, Malvina walks gracefully ; I saw a 
man riding sloivly ; Ossian was a very sublime 
poet; the lady reads too fast. 

THE PARTICIPLE. 

A Paeticifle is a word so called, because it 
partakes of the nature of a verb and also of an 
adjective ; as, being, been, having been; seeing, 
seen, having seen ; walking, walked, having 
walked. 

THE CONJUNCTION". 

The Conjunction is a part of speech used to 
join words or sentences together; as, Lizzie 
and her sister spell and write well ; u He rolls 
his form in the whirlwind, and hovers on the 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

blast of the mountain ; " * We fought, hut the 
foe prevailed." 

THE PREPOSITION. 

Prepositions are used to connect words, and 
to show the relation between them; as. He 
went from Boston to Washington; The book 
lies on the table ; The papyrus grows in Egypt. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

Interjections are words used to express sud- 
den emotion, or strong excitement of the mind ; 
as, "Go with thy rustling wind, breeze ! sigh 
on Malvina's tomb." u These were delightful 
days, but, alas ! they are no more." 

These definitions of the parts of speech, 
should be carefully studied and committed to 
memory by the learner. 

OF NOUNS. 

A Noun is a name ; as, field, town, house, non- 
entity, Ohio, Columbus, Frankfort. 

Noun means name. Hence, the name of every 
thing in the universe, whether material or im- 
material, real or imaginary, is a noun. 

Nouns are of two kinds, Common and Proper. 

A Common noun is a name applicable to 
every individual of a class, sort, or genus ; as, 
man, river, mountain, tree, city. 

From these illustrations, the learner will 
easily see, that common nouns are names used 



NOUNS. 15 

to distinguish kinds, sorts, races, and classes of 
beings From one another. 

The names of the metals are common, be- 
cause used to distinguish sorts or kinds from 
one another ; as, gold, silver, iron, copper, etc. 

Collective, abstract, and verbal nouns are also 
considered common. 

A Proper noun is the name of an individual ; 
as, Brutus, Boston, Etna* 

A Proper noun is used to distinguish a sin- 
gle one of a class, sort, or genus, from the rest 
of its own class, sort, or genus. Every person 
or thing that has a proper name, must also 
have a common name. 

Vesuvius is a proper noun ; it is used to dis- 
tinguish an individual of a class from the rest 
of its own class ; the common name of the thing 
designated, is mountain. 

Philadelphia is a proper noun ; the common 
name of the thing designated, is city. 

Nile is a proper noun) the common name 
of the thing designated, is river. 

Common nouns become proper when per- 
sonified; as, "Hail, artless Simplicity, beautiful 
maid ! " 

The proper names of persons and places 
often become common, when preceded by a or 
the; — -as, He is the Milton of his age; that is, 
the poet. He is the Newton of his age ; — that 
is, the philosopher. 

A Proper noun used in the plural number, 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAE- 

becomes common, because it is then applied to 
two or more individuals ; as, the Washingtons ; 
The Franklins ; The Wehsters. 

A Common noun preceded by the definitive 
adjective the, sometimes becomes proper; as, 
The Strand; The Park; The Isthmus; The 
Channel 

A Noun signifying many is called a Col- 
lective noun or noun of multitude; as, army, 
meeting, herd. 

An Abstract noun is the name of a quality 
considered apart from its substance ; as, sweet- 
ness, goodness, knowledge. 

A Verbal or Participial noun is derived from 
a verb, and denotes an action or state of being; 
as, "The driving is like the driving of Jehu, 
the son of Nimshi." " The triumphing of the 
wicked is short." 

To Nouns belong Gender, Person, Number, 
and Case. 

OF GENDER. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns with re- 
gard to sex. 

Nouns have three genders, the Masculine, 
the Feminine, and the Neuter. 

The Masculine gender denotes animals of 
the male kind ; as, a man, a boy, a king, a lion, 
a horse. 

The Fenlinine gender denotes animals of the 



GENDER. 17 

female kind ; as, a woman, a girl, a queen, a 
lioness. 

The Neuter gender denotes things which' are 
neither male nor female ; as, a book, a table, a 
chair, a mountain. 

In English, we generally apply the genders 
agreeably to the order of nature ; they belong 
only to nouns and pronouns. Pronouns must 
always be of the same gender as the nouns 
which they represent. 

Nouns which apply equally to both males 
and females, when used in the singular number, 
are said to be of the masculine or feminine 
gender ; as, person, cousin, pupil. Some writers 
erroneously assert, that such nouns are of the 
common gender. A noun in the singular num- 
ber, caimot be of the common gender, for the 
plain reason, that one animal is not both a male 
and a female. Lindley Murray justly observes, 
" There is no such gender belonging to the 
language." Goold Brown observes, " It is plainly 
a solecism." 

Some nouns include both sexes; as, parents, 
children, friends. Such nouns when used in the 
plural number, are of the masculine and femi- 
nine gender. 

In speaking of animals remarkable for size, 
strength, boldness, etc., we usually apply the 
masculine gender. Thus we say of the elephant, 
He roams in his native forest. 

Animals remarkable for weakness or timidity, 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

are generally spoken of as feminine. Thus we 
say of the hare, She is a timid creature. 

When a name equally applicable to both 
sexes, is used in connection with an employ- 
ment, office, or profession, which properly be- 
longs to males, it should be parsed as masculine. 
Thus, if I say, I hired a person to saw wood, 
person should be parsed as masculine gender. 

Inferior orders of animals, such as birds, ser- 
pents, fishes, and insects, are usually spoken of 
as neuter; as, I watched the bird as it flew from 
bough to bough. " The hedgehog as soon as it 
perceives itself attacked, roils itself into a kind 
of ball, and presents nothing but its prickles to 
the foe." 

All things without life are really of the 
neuter gender, yet by a figure of speech, we 
often attribute gender to inanimate objects; 
as, 

" Is Death at distance ? No ; he has been on thee, 
And given sure earnest of his final blow." — Young. 

" Hear the loud voice 
Of Wisdom sounding in her works." — Ogilvie. 

When speaking figuratively, we usually give 
the masculine gender to those things which are 
great, powerful, efficacious; as, the sun, ocean, 
time, winter, death, etc. 

On the other hand, things gentle, beautiful, 
or prolific, are spoken of as feminine ; as, the 
moon, earth, wisdom, spring, etc. 



GENDER. 



19 



We have three methods of distinguishing 
the sex. 

1. By different words ; as, 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Bachelor 


maid 


King 


queen 


Boar 


sow 


Lad 


lass 


Boy 


girl 


Lord 


lady 


Brother 


sister 


Man 


woman 


Buck 


doe 


Master" 


mistress 


Bull 


cow 


Milter 


spawner 


Cock 


hen 


Nephew 


niece 


Dog 


bitch 


Ram 


ewe 


Drake 


duck 


Singer 


songstress, 


Earl 


countess 




or singer. 


Father 


mother 


Sloven 


slut 


Friar 


nun 


Son 


daughter. 


Gander 


goose 


Stag 


hind 


Hart 


roe 


Uncle 


aunt 


Horse 


mare 


Wizard 


witch 


Husband 


wife 


Sir 


madam 


2. 


By a difference 


in termination; as, 


Abbot 


abbess 


Elector 


electress 


Actor 


actress 


Embassador 


embassadress 


Administrator administratrix 


Emperor 


empress 


Adulterer 


adultress 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Executor 


executrix 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Fornicator 


fornicatress 


Auditor 


auditress 


God 


goddess 


Author 


authoress 


Governor 


governess 


Baron 


baroness 


Heir 


heiress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Hero 


heroine 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Host 


hostess 


Canon 


canoness 


Hunter 


huntress 


Caterer 


cateress 


Inheritor 


inheritress or 


Chanter 


chantress 




inheritrix 


Conductor 


conductress 


Instructor 


instructress 


Count 


countess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Czar 


czarina 


Lion 


lioness 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Detractor 


detractress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Director 


directress 


Patron 


patroness 


Duke 


duchess 


Peer 


' peeress • 



20 



ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Poet 


poetess 


Sultan 


sultaness or 


Priest 


priestess 




sultana 


Prince 


princess 


Tiger 


tigress 


Prior 


prioress 


Testator 


testatrix 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Traitor 


traitress 


Proprietor 


proprietress 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Protector 


protectress 


Tyrant 


tyranness 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Victor 


victress 


Songster 


songstress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Votary 


votaress 


Suitor 


suitress 


Widower 


widow 



3. By prefixing another icord ; as, 

MA.SCULINE. FEMININE. 



A cock-sparrow 
A man-servant 
A he-goat 
A he-bear 
A male-child 
Male-descendants 



A hen-sparrow 

A maidservant 

A she-goat 

A she-bear 

A female child 

Female -descendants 



OF PERSON. 

Person, in grammar, is that property of a 
noun or a pronoun which shows its relation to 
the speaker. 

There are three persons / the first, the 
second, and the third. 

The First person denotes the speaker ; as, 
" I, Paul, have written unto you ; " We, the 
people, will be heard. 

A noun is never of the first person, except 
when put by apposition with a pronoun of the 
first person. 

The Second person denotes the person or 
thing addressed ; as, Richard, what are you 



NUMBER. 21 

doing ? " Oscar, terrible wert thou, my best, 
my greatest son." — Ossian. 

The Third person denotes the person or 
thing spoken of; as, Jesus died for sinners ; 
Wisdom is desirable. 

OF NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction between one and 
more than one, generally expressed by some 
difference in termination. 

Nouns have two numbers ; the singular and 
the plural 

The Singular number denotes but one} as, 
day. 

The Plural number denotes more than one} 
as, days. 

1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form ; 
as, hemp, flax, barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, 
honesty, meekness, compassion, etc. ; others only in 
the plural form ; as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, 
snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers, ides, pains, 
vespers, etc. 

2. Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, 
deer, sheep, swine ; and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, 
species. 

3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed 
by adding s to the singular ; as, dove, doves ; face; 
faces ; but sometimes we add es in the plural ; as, 
box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; cargo, 
cargoes. 

4. Nouns ending in / or fe, are rendered plural by 
a change of that termination into ves ; as, half, halves ; 
wife, wives : except grief, relief, reproof, and several 
others, which form their plurals by the addition of s. 



22 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Those ending injf, have the regular plural ; as, run 
ruffs ; except staff, staves. 

5. Nouns ending in y, in the singular, with no 
other vowel in the same syllable, change it into ies in 
the plural ; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. But the 
y is not changed where there is another vowel in the 
syllable ; as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, 
attorneys ; valley, valleys ; chimney, chimneys. 

6. Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, 
pneumatics, hydraulics, etc., are construed either as 
singular or plural nouns. 

7. The word news is always singular. The nouns 
means, alms and amends, though plural in form, may 
be either singular or plural in signification. Anti- 
podes, credenda, literati, and minutiae, are always 
plural. Bandit is now used as the singular of banditti. 

8. The following nouns form their plurals not 
according to any general rule , thus, man, men ; 
woman, women; child, children; ox, oxen; tooth, 
teeth ; goose, geese ; foot, feet ; mouse, mice ; louse, 
lice ; brother, brothers or brethren ; cow, cows or 
kine ; penny, pence, or pennies when the coin is 
meant; die, dice for play, dies for coining; pea and 
fish, pease and fish when the species is meant, but 
peas and fishes when we refer to the number; as, six 
peas, ten fishes. 

9. The following compounds form their plurals 
thus : handful, handfuls ; cupful, cupfuls ; spoonful, 
spoonfuls ; brother in-law, brothers-in-law; court- 
martial, courts martial. 

The following words form their plurals according 
to the rules of the languages from which they are 
adopted. 





NUMBER. 


23 


SINGULAR 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR 


PLURAL. 


Antithesis 


antitheses 


Genius 


genii* 


Apex 


apices 


Genus 


genera 


Appendix 


f appendixes or 
\ appendices 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Ignis fatuus 


ignes fatui 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Index 


f indices or 
\indexest 


Automaton 


automata 


Axis 


axes 


Lamina 


laminae 


Basis 


bases 


Magus 


magi 


Beau 


f beaux or 
\ beaus 


Memoran- 


J memoranda or 
\ memorandums 


dum 


Calx 


J calces or 
\ calxes 


Metamorphosis Metamorphoses 


Parenthesis 


parentheses 


Cherub 
Crisis 


/ cherubim or 
\ cherubs 
crises 


Phenomenon 
Radius 


phenomena 
( radii or 
\ radiuses 


Criterion 


criteria 


Stamen 


stamina 


Datum 


data 


Seraph 


( seraphim , 
\ seraphs 


Diaeresis 


diaereses 


Desideratum 


i desiderata 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Stratum 


strata 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Thesis 


theses 


Emphasis 


emphases 


Vertex 


vertices 


Encomium 


J encomia or 
\ encomiums 


Vortex 


f vortices or 
X vortexes 


Erratum 


errata 







Molasses and measles should be construed as singular. It 
is no better to say molasses are sweet, than to say vinegar 
are sour. Webster observes. "Measles is the name of a dis- 
ease, and, in strictness, no more plural than gout or fever." 

* Genii, imaginary spirits; geniuses, persons of great 
mental abilities. 

t Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant; 
indices, when referring to algebraic quantities. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF CASE. 

Case, when applied, to nouns and pronouns, 
means the position which they occupy in a 
sentence, in relation to other words. 

Nouns have three cases; the Nominative, 
the Possessive, and the Objective. 

The Nominative case denotes the subject of 
a finite verb; as, James walks; The horses 
trot ; Trees grow. 

The nominative case to a verb, is that of 
which something is affirmed by a finite verb; 
as, Maude reads. Here reads is a finite verb, 
and affirms of Maude j therefore Maude is in 
the nominative case. 

The Possessive case denotes the possession 
of property, and has an apostrophe with the 
letter s placed after it ; as, Adeline's map ; 
The Boys book. 

When the plural ends in s, the other s is 
omitted, but the apostrophe is retained; as, 
boys, boys'; girls, girls' . 

Sometimes, when the singular terminates in 
s, the apostrophic s is omitted ; as, " For good- 
ness' sake ;" " For righteousness' sake." 

Plural nouns which do not end in s, form 
their possessive by taking both the apostrophe 
and the s; as, Men's hats ; women's gloves ; 
children's toys. 

The relation of possession is often denoted 
by the preposition of before the objective case; 
as, my brother's house, or The house of my 



CASE. 25 

brother ; Aaron's rod, or The rod of Aaron ; 
Christ's disciples, or The disciples of Christ. 

The sign of the possessive case should be 
placed at the end of compound words ; as, my 
father-in-law's farm ; my brother-in-law's library. 

The Objective case denotes the object of an 
action or of a relation ; and usually follows a 
transitive verb, a transitive participle, or a pre- 
position ; as, William loves his friend; I heard 
Andrew reciting his lesson; Give the book to 
Leona. 

A noun or a pronoun in the objective case, 
is often the subject of an infinitive verb ; as, 
I heard the boy read; Let him go home 

A relative pronoun in the objective case, 
precedes the governing verb ; as, " Behold, I 
am he ivhom ye seek." — Bible. 

The nominative and the objective cases of 
nouns, are always alike in form, being dis- 
tinguishable from each other only by their 
position in a sentence, and by their relation to 
other words. 

A noun is always in the objective case, when 
a personal pronoun in the objective, will make 
sense in its place ; as, I saw the man, or I saw 
him. Here, him, a personal pronoun in the 
objective case, can be substituted for man with- 
out destroying the sense ; therefore man is in . 
the objective cases. 
3 



26 



ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

The declension of nouns and pronouns, is 
the proper arrangement of their numbers and 
cases. 

NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED. 





EXAMPLE 1. — GIRL. 




Sing, 




Plur. 


Norn. Girl. 




Nom, Girls. 


Poss, Girl's. 




Poss, Girls'. 


Obj. Girl. 


EXAMPLE 2. — MAN. 


Obj, Girls. 


Sing, 


** 


Plur. 


Nom. Man. 




Nom. Men. 


Poss, Man's. 




Poss, Men's. 


Obj, Man. 


EXAMPLE 3. — LADY. 


Obj. Men, 


Sing. 




Plur. 


Nom, Lady. 




Nom. Ladies. 


Poss, Lady's 


# 


Poss, Ladies' 


Obj. Lady. 


EXAMPLE 4. — BOY. 


Obj. Ladies. 


Sing. 




Plur. 


Nom. Boy. 




Nom. Boys. 


Poss. Boy's. 




Poss. Boys'. 


Obj. Boy. 


EXAMPLE 5. — FOX. 


Obj. Boys. 


Sing. 




Plur. 


Nom. Fox. 




Nom. Foxes. 


Poss. Fox's. 




Poss. Foxes'. 


Obj. Fox. 




Obj. Foxes. 



The following are the different positions in 
which a noun may occur in composition : 

1. It may be in the nominative case to a 
verb ; as, Selina writes. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS, 27 

2. It may be in the nominative case inde- 
pendent by address ; as, Selina, you read well. 

3. It may be in the nominative case inde- 
pendent by exclamation ; as, Selina ! I re- 
member her with deep emotion. 

4. It may be in the nominative case inde- 
pendent by pleonasm ; as, Our dear Selina, she 
was lovely, but death has taken her from us. 

5. It may be in the nominative case abso- 
lute ; as, Selina having arrived, we proceeded 
on our journey. 

6. It may be in the possessive case; as, 
Selina s paper. 

7. It may be in the objective case, governed 
by a transitive verb ; as, I saw Selina. 

8 It may be in the objective case, governed 
by a transitive participle ; as, After hearing 
Selina read, I dismissed the class. 

9. It may be in the objective case, governed 
by a preposition ; as, Give the book to Selina. 

10 It may be in the nominative case by 
apposition ; as, The grammarian Selina is pre- 
sent, 

11. It may be in the objective case by ap- 
position; as, I heard the grammarian Selina 
analyze a sentence. 

12. It may be in the nominative case after 
the verb to be, or one of its inflections ; as, 
That lady is Selina. 

13. It may be in the objective case after the 
verb to be, or its inflection been ; as, I took 



28 ENCxLISH GRAMMAR. 

her to be Selina; I believe her to have been 
Selina. 

Remark — Been is the only inflection of the 
verb to be y that can take an objective case after 
it. 

A noun used without a word to limit its 
signification, is sometimes taken in its widest 
sense ; as, Man is lower than the angels — that 
is, all mankind. % 

MODELS FOR PARSING NOUNS IN THEIR 
VARIOUS POSITIONS. 

THE NOUNS IN ITALICS ARE PARSED. 
THE NOMINATIVE CASE— Dependent. 

Augustus writes. 

Model 1. Augustus is a proper noun, of the 
masculine gender, third person, singular num- 
ber, in the nominative case to the verb writes ; 
according to Rule 1. A noun or a pronoun is 
in the nominative case to the verb of which it 
is the subject. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing Augustus. 

Augustus is a noun, because it is a name; 
proper, because it is the name of an individual ; 
of the masculine gender, because it denotes the 
male kind ; of the third person, because spoken 
of ; in the singular number, because it denotes 
but one ; in the nominative case, because it 
denotes the subject of a finite verb. 



MODELS FOR PARSING NOUNS. 29 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE— Independent by Address. 

Horace, study your lesson. 

Model 2. Horace is a proper noun, of the 
masculine gender, second person, singular 
number, in the nominative case independent 
by address ; according to Rule 2. When a 
noun or a pronoun is addressed, it is in the 
nominative case independent. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing Horace. 

Horace is a noun, because it is a name ; 
proper, because it is the name of an individual ; 
of the masculine gender, because it denotes the 
male kind ; of the second person, because ad- 
dressed; in the singular number, because it 
denotes but one ; in the nominative case inde- 
pendent, because its case does not depend on a 
verb. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE- Independently Exclamation. 

Poor man ! I am sorry to see him suffer. 

Model 3. Man is a common noun, of the 
masculine gender ; third person, singular num- 
ber ; in the nominative case independent by 
exclamation; according to Rule 4. Nouns 
of the third person, are often in the nominative 
case independent by exclamation. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing man. 

Man is a noun, because it is a name ; com- 
mon, because it is a n^me applicable to every 
individud of a class, sort, or genus; of the 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

masculine gender, because it denotes the male 
kind ; of the third person, because spoken of; 
in the singular number, because it denotes but 
one ; in the nominative case independent, be- 
cause its case does not depend on a verb ; by 
exclamation, because it denotes emotion or ex- 
citement of the mind. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT— % Pleonasm. 

The pilgrim fathers, where are they? 

Model 4. Fathers is a common noun, of 
the masculine gender, third person, plural 
number, in the nominative case independent 
by pleonasm; according to Rule 5. Nouns 
and pronouns are sometimes in the nominative 
case independent by pleonasm. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing fathers. 

Fathers is a noun, because it is a name ; 
common, because it is a name applicable to 
every individual of a class, sort, or genus ; of 
the masculine gender, because it denotes the 
male kind ; of the third person, because spo- 
ken of; in the plural number, because it de- 
notes more than one ; in the nominative case 
independent, because its case does not depend 
on a verb ; by pleonasm, because it is intro- 
duced abruptly for the sake of emphasis. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE -Absolute. 

Our work being finished we returned home. 
Model 5. Work is a common noun, of the 



MODELS FOE PARSING NOUNS- 31 

neuter gender, third person, singular number, 
in the nominative case absolute, according to 
Rule 3. When a noun or a pronoun precedes 
a participle, and its case depends on no other 
word in the sentence, it is in the nominative 
case absolute. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing work. 

Work is a noun, because it is a name ; com- 
mon, because it is a name applicable to every 
individual of a class, sort, or genus ; of the 
neuter gender, because it denotes a thing which 
is neither male or female ; of the third person, 
because spoken of; in the singular number, 
because it denotes but one ; in the nominative 
case absolute, because it precedes a participle, 
and has no dependence on any other word in 
the sentence. 

THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

This is the boy's book. 

Model 6. Boy's is a common noun, of the 
masculine gender, third person, singular num- 
ber, in the possessive case, it possesses boolc, 
and is governed by it, according to Rule 6, 
The possessive case is governed by the name 
of the thing possessed. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing boy's. 

Boy's is a noun, because it is a name ; com- 
mon, because it is a name applicable to every 
individual of a class, sort, or genus ; of the 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

masculine gender, because it denotes the male 
kind ; of the third person, because spoken of; 
in the singular number, because it denotes but 
one; in the possessive case, because it denotes 
the possession of property. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE— Governed by a transitive verb. 

I saw Josephine. 

Model 7. Josephine is a proper noun, of the 
feminine gender, third person, singular number, 
in the objective case, governed by the transi- 
tive verb saw, according to Rule 8. Transi- 
tive verbs govern the objective case. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing Josephine. 

Josephine is a noun, because it is a name ; 
proper, because it is the name of an individual ; 
of the feminine gender, because it denotes the 
female kind ; of the third person, because 
spoken of; in the singular number, because it 
denotes but one ; in the objective case, because 
it denotes the object of the action expressed by 
the transitive verb saw. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE— Governed by a transitive participle. 

Having recited my lesson, I left the room. 

Model 8. Lesson is a common noun, of the 
neuter gender, third person, singular number, 
in the objective case, governed by the transi- 
tive participle having recited, according to 
Rule 26. Participles retain the regimen of 
the verbs from which they are derived. 



MODELS FOR PARSING NOUNS. 33 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing lesson. 

Lesson is a noun, because it is a name; 
common, because it is a name applicable to 
every individual of a class, sort or genus ; of 
the neuter gender, because it denotes a thing 
which is neither male nor female ; of the third 
person, because spoken of; in the singular 
number, because it denotes but one ; in the ob- 
jective case, because it denotes the object of the 
action expressed by the transitive participle 
having recited. 

THE OBJECTIVE C ASE— Governed by a preposition. 

Give the locket to Valeria. 

Model 9. Valeria is a proper noun, of the 
feminine gender, third person, singular number, 
in the objective case, governed by the prepo- 
sition to; according to Rule 9. Prepositions 
govern the objective case. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing Valeria. 

Valeria is a noun, because it is a name ; 
proper, because it is the name of an individual; 
of the feminine gender, because it denotes the 
female kind ; of the third person, because spoken 
of; in the singular number, because it denotes 
but one ; in the objective case, because it de- 
notes the object of the relation expressed by the 
preposition to. 
4 



34 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE— By apposition. 

Mary, queen of Scots, was admired for her 
beauty. 

Model 10. Queen is a common noun, of 
the feminine gender, third person, singular 
number, in the nominative case by apposition 
with Mary ; according to Rule 7. When nouns 
or pronouns are added to preceding nouns or 
pronouns to explain them, they are by apposi- 
tion in the same case. 

Reasons for the positions token in parsing queen. 

Queen is a noun, because it is a name ; 
common, because it is a name applicable to 
every individual of a class, sort, or genus ; of 
the feminine gender, because it denotes the 
female kind; of the third person, because 
spoken of; in the singular number, because it 
denotes but one ; in the nominative case by ap- 
position, because it is added to a preceding 
noun in the nominative case to explain it. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE— % apposition. 

I have read the works of Newton the philoso- 
pher. 

Model 11. Philosopher is a common noun, 
of the masculine gender, third person, singular 
number, in the objective case by apposition 
with Newton; according to Rule 7. When 
nouns or pronouns are added to preceding 



MODELS FOR PARSING NOUNS. 35 

nouns or pronouns to explain them, they are 
by apposition in the same case. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing philosopher. 

Philosopher is a noun, because it is a name; 
common, because it is a name .applicable to 
every individual of a class, sort, or genus ; of 
the masculine gender, because it denotes the 
male kind ; of the third person, because spoken 
of; in the singular number, because it denotes 
but one ; in the objective case by apposition, 
because it is added to a preceding noun in the 
objective case, to explain it. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE— After the verb To be. 

Will you be my friend f 
Model 12. Friend is a common noun, of 
the masculine or feminine gender, third person, 
singular number, in the nominative case after 
the verb to he; according to Rule 19. Intran- 
sitive and passive verbs have the same case 
after them as before them, when both words 
relate to the same person or thing. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing friend. 

Friend is a noun, because it is a name ; 
common, because it is a name applicable to 
every individual of a class, sort, or genus ; of 
the masculine or femiaine gender, because it 
may denote either a m ile or a female ; of the 
third person, because spoken of; in the singular 
number, because it denotes but one; in the 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nominative case after the verb, because you is 
in the nominative case before it, and nouns and 
pronouns relating to the same person, must 
agree in case. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE— After the verb To be. 

I took the lady to be Feronia. 

Model 13. Feronia is a proper noun, of 
the feminine gender, third person, singular num- 
ber, in the objective case after the verb to be; 
according to Rule 1 9. Intransitive and passive 
verbs have the same case after them as before 
them, when both words relate to the same per- 
son or thing. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing Feronia. 

Feronia is a noun, because it is a name ; 
proper, because it is the name of an individual ; 
of the feminine gender, because it denotes the 
female kind ; of the third person, because spoken 
of; in the singular number, because it denotes 
but one ; in the objective case after the verb, 
because lady is in the objective case before it, 
and nouns and pronouns relating to the same 
person, must agree in case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Lesson 1. — Parsing. 

The lion roars. Lions roar. The man reads. 
Men read. Leander analyzes. The boys analyze. 
Caroline walks. The ladies walk. The hyacinth 



EXEECISES IN PARSING. 37 

grows. Hyacinths grow. The billow rolls. Billows 
roll. The. boy eats grapes. Boys eat grapes. Peter 
throws the ball. The child loves fruit. Children 
love fruit. The teacher writes copies. Teachers 
write copies. Henry bought John's horse. The 
students use Webster's Dictionary. Elvira has 
Lucetta's fan. Hannah has Bhoda's book. Allen, 
come here. Ladies and gentlemen, permit me to 
address you. Emily, who gave you that beautiful 
bouquet? 

Lesson 2. — Parsing. 

Poor beggar ! It is wrong to let him suffer. That 
wretched inebriate ! we would save him, if we could. 
Dear friends of my youth, they have passed away. 
Those craggy mountains, how grand and awful they 
appear ! The enemy having retreated, we rested on 
our arms during the night. My friend being present, 
I have nothing to fear. The stream being deep and 
rapid, we did not attempt to cross it. Euclid, the 
celebrated mathematician and astronomer, taught at 
Alexandria in Egypt, about two thousand years ago. 
Elizabeth, queen of England, began to reign when 
she was twenty-five years of age. 

Lesson 3. — Parsing. 

We admire the character of Howard the philan- 
thropist. Democracy is a form of government, in 
which the supreme power is lodged in the hands of 
the people. We have chosen that man to be our 
teacher in philosophy and mathematics. <( The song 
comes with its music to melt and please the ear. 
It is like soft mist, that rising from the lake pours 
on the silent vale. The green flowers are filled with 
dew. The sun returns in its strength, and the mist 
is gone." — Osaian. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF VERBS. 

A Verb is a word which signifies to exist, 
to act , or to endure action; as, I am, I rule, 
I am ruled ; I was, I saw, I ukis seen. 

Verbs may be divided into three classes : 
Transitive, Intransitive, and Passive. 

A Transitive verb is a verb expressing an 
action which requires the addition of an object 
to complete the sense ; as, The boy struck the 
desk; Susannah studies grammar. 
Jj! An Intransitive verb expresses being or 
action which is confined to the subject or nom- 
inative; as, Philip is, he sleeps, he stands, he 
walks, he runs. 

The Passive verb expresses action received 
or endured by the subject or nominative ; 
as, David was loved by Jonathan; Tea is 
brought from China ; The boy was reproved 
by tbe teacher. 

The noun or pronoun which performs the 
action expressed by a passive verb, is always 
in the objective case, and is generally governed 
by the preposition by, either expressed or un- 
derstood; as, The hare was caught by the 
fox. Here, hare is in the nominative case, 
and receives or endures the action expressed 
by the p ssive verb was caught; and fox, a 
noun in the objective case, governed by the 
preposition by, performs the action expressed 
by the ve]b. 

Intransitive verbs when followed by preposi- 



VERBS. 39 

tions used in an adverbial sense, sometimes 
become passive in signification ; as, She was 
smiled on; He was laughed at. 

A few intransitive verbs signifying motion, 
are sometimes found in the passive form ; as, I 
am arrived; He is come; The bird is flown; 
They are gone. As these verbs do not express 
action received by their nominatives, it would 
be improper to dispose of them as passive 
verbs; they should be parsed as intransitive 
verbs in the passive form. The sentences 
would be much better if rendered thus : I have 
arrived; He has come; The bird has flown; 
They have gone. 

Verbs have two forms ; one called Regular, 
the other Irregular. 

A verb is said to be regular, when it forms 
its imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and 
its perfect participle, by adding to the present 
tense ed, or d only when the verb ends in e ; as, 
Present tense, %valk; Imperfect, walked; Per- 
fect participle, walked; Present tense, love; 
Imperfect, loved ; Perfect participle, loved. 

A verb is irregular, when it does not form 
its imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and 
its perfect participle, by adding d or ed to the 
present; as, Present tense, teach; Imperfect, 
taught; Perfect participle, taught; Present 
tense, write; Imperfect, wrote; Perfect par- 
ticiple, written; Present tense, shake ; Imper- 
fect, shook; Perfect participle, shaken. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A defective verh is one that wants some of 
its principal parts. When any of the principal 
parts of a verb are wanting, it must necessarily 
be deficient in some of the moods and tenses. 
Ought is a defective verb, having only the 
present tense. We can say. He ought to go ; 
but we cannot with propriety say, He has 
ought to go ; He had ought to go ; or He shall 
ought to go. 

Some verbs are used only in the third per- 
son singular; as, It lightens y it thunders y it 
rains ; it hails ; it snoivs; it freezes. These 
are sometimes called impersonal verbs. The 
pronoun it is always used before them, and 
seems to represent a mere state of things. 

Auxiliary or helping verbs are those used 
in conjugating other verbs ; they are, do, did, 
have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, 
might, can, could, am, ivas, and must. Do, 
be, have, and will are sometimes principal 
verbs ; as, The boys do the work ; When will 
you be at home? "Have you a father? Save 
ye another brother ? " — Bible. " God wills 
whatever comes to pass." 

To Verbs belong Mood, Tense, Person, 
and Number. 

OF MOODS. 

Mood, when applied to verbs, means the 
manner in which the existence, action, or en- 
durance of action, is expressed. 



VEBBS. 41 

Remar'k — Some prefer the term mode to 
mood; but for this use, the latter is the more 
appropriate word, and is used by a large ma- 
jority of our best grammarians. 

Verbs have five moods ; the Indicative, the 
Subjunctive, the Potential, the Imperative, 
and the Infinitive. 

The Indicative mood simply affirms or de- 
nies a thing ; as, He ivrites, he does not write; 
or, it asks a question ; as, Does he write f 

The Subjunctive mood expresses existence, 
action, or endurance of action, as conditional, 
doubtful or contingent ; as, I will love him, 
though he reprove me ; If he were good, he 
would be happy. A verb in this mood, is pre- 
ceded by a conjunction expressed or under- 
stood, and attended by another verb. 

The Potential mood, expresses possibility, 
liberty, necessity, power, will or obligation ; as, 
It may rain; He may go or stay ; He 
must teach; He can walk ; He woidd ride; 
We should learn. This mood is also used in 
asking questions ; as, May he go? Must he 
walk? Can he read? 

The Imperative mood is used in command- 
ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting ; as, 
"Depart thou ;" "Remember thy Creator;" 
"Forgive us our debts ;" " Go in peace." A 
verb in the imperative mood, is always of the 
second person, and is never varied on account 
of number. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Infinitive mood expresses existence, 
action, or endurance of action, in a general 
and unlimited manner, without any distinction 
of person or number ; as, To thinlc, to speak, 
to ivrite. A verb in this mood partakes of the 
nature of an abstract noun. 

OF TENSES. 

The Tenses are those modifications of the 
verb, which mark the distinctions of time. 

Verbs have six tenses ; the Present, the 
Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the 
First Future, and the Second Future. 

Remark. — Though some of the names here 
given to the tenses, are not so strictly appro- 
priate as scientific names ought to be, it is be- 
lieved nothing would be gained by changing 
them. Their use in designating the tenses, has 
been long sanctioned by a majority of our 
most eminent grammarians. 

The Present tense denotes what is passing 
at the time in which it is mentioned ; as, I 
read, You write, The boy studies. 

The present tense in the indicative mood, is 
used to express what is habitually true ; as, He 
reads every day. 

The present tense is often used in speaking 
of persons who are dead ; as " Seneca reasons 
well." 

In animated narrations, this tense is some- 
times substituted for the imperfect j as, He con- 



VERBS. 43 

quers the enemy, takes two thousand prison- 
ers, and returns home in triumph. 

When the present tense is preceded by as 
soon as, after, before, till or when, it gener- 
ally relates to future time ; as, I will return 
home as soon as I finish this business ; Mary 
will visit us after she returns from the semi- 
nary ; I will see you before your brother ar- 
rives ;1 will v.ait till you finish your letter ; 
I will see him when he comes. These adverbs 
of time, carry the mind to an event to happen, 
and we speak of it as present. 

The Imperfect tense denotes an action or 
event which transpired within a period of time 
fully past ; as, I met him on my way to Wash- 
ington; I heard Henry read. 

This tense always expresses what is past, 
and unconnected with the present time. 

The imperfect tense of the indicative mood, 
in its simple form, is by some authors called 
the preterit ; as, I walked, I ran, I saw, I 
was. 

The Perfect tense relates to what has taken 
place, within a period of time not yet fully past ; 
as, I have concluded to go ; He has ivritten 
a letter ; The boy has recited his lesson. 

The perfect tense may also relate to future 
time ; as, I will be in suspense till my friend 
has arrived ; I will visit you after you have 
dismissed your class. 

The Pluperfect tense expresses what has 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

taken place before the time of another past 
action or event ; as, I had seen him before he 
came to Ohio ; The ship had sailed before I 
reached New York. 

The pluperfect tense is often used con- 
ditionally, without a conjunction expressed ; as, 
Had he finished the work, he would have re- 
ceived his wages. 

The First Future tense denotes what will 
take place hereafter ; as, I shall he there at 
the appointed time ; He will come again. 

The Second Future tense expresses what 
will have taken place, at or before the time of 
another future action or event ; as, I shall 
have dined at one o'clock ; He ivill have fin- 
ished his letter before the mail arrives. 

In the Indicative mood there are six tenses; 
in the Subjunctive six; in the Potential four; 
in the Imperative one; and in the Infinitive 
two. 

Illustrations of the Tenses in the different Moods. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present tense, I see ; imperfect tense, I saw ; 
perfect tense, I h ive seen ; pluperfect tense, I 
had seen ; first future tense, I shall or will see ; 
second future tense, I shall or will have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present tense, if I see ; imperfect tense, if I 
saw ; perfect tense, if I have seen ; pluperfect 



VERBS. 45 

tense, if I had seen ; first future tense, if I shall 
or will see ; second future tense, if I shall or 
will have seen. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present tense, I may, can, or must see ; im- 
perfect tense, I might, could, would, or should 
see ; perfect tense, I may, can, or must have 
seen ; pluperfect tense, I might, could, would, 
or should have seen. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present tense, see thou. The other tenses 
wanting. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present tense ; to see ; perfect tense, to have 
seen. 

OF PERSON AND NUMBER. 

Person and Number when applied to verbs, 
mean the different forms which they assume in 
agreeing with their nominatives ; as, I write, 
thou ivritest, he writes; The man writes, the 
men ivrite. 

In each number, there are three persons ; and 
in each person two numbers ; thus, singular, 
first person I am, second person thou art, third 
person he is ; plural, first person we are, sec- 
ond person ye or you are, third person they 
are. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the plural, the three persons are always 
alike, and with the exception of the verb to be, 
are the same as the first person singular. 

In the imperative mood, the verb is not va- 
ried on account of number; as, Hear thou, 
Hear ye. 

As a verb in the infinitive mood, has no 
nominative, it can have neither person nor 
number. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular 
combination and arrangement of its several 
moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 




DO. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present Tense. 


Singular. 


Plural 


1. Pers, I do, 

2. Pers. Thou dost, 

3. Pers. He does. 


1. We do, 

2. Ye or you do, 

3. They do. 


Imperfect Tense. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. I did, 

2. Thou didst, 

3. He did. 


1. We did, 

2. Ye or you did, 

3. They did. 




Participles. 


Imperfect, 

Perfect, 

Compound- 


Doing. 
Boue. 
perfect, Having done. 



VERBS. 47 



HAVE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I have, 1. We had, 

2. Thou hast, 2. Ye or you had, 

3. He has. 3. They had. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had, 1. We had, 

2. Thou hadst, 2. Ye or you had, 

3. He had . 3. They had. 





Participles, 




Imperfect, 

Perfect, 

Compound-perfect, 


Having. 
Had. 
Having had, 




SHALL. 






Present Tense. 




Singular. 

1. I shall, 

2. Thou shalt, 

3. He shall. 


Plural. 

1. We shall, 

2. Ye or you shall, 

3. They shall. 



Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I should, 1. We should, 

2. Thou shouldst, 2. Ye or you should, 

3. He should. 3. They should. 

WILL. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I will, 1. We will, 

2. Thou wilt, 2. Ye or you will, 

3. He will. 3. They will. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I would, 1. We would, 

2. Thou wouldst, 2, Ye or you would, 

3. He would. 3. They would. 



48 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



MAY. 
Present Tense. 



Singular, 

1. Pers. I may, 

2. Pers. Thou mayst, 

3. Pers. He may. 

Singular. 

1. I might, 

2. Thou mightst, 

3. He might. 



Singular. 

1. I can, 

2. Thou canst, 

3. He can. 



Singular. 

1. I could, 

2. Thou couldst, 

3. He could. 



Singular. 
I am, 
Thou art, 
He is. 



Singular. 

1. I was, 

2. Thou wast, 

3. He was. 



Plural. 

1. We may, 

2. Ye or you may, 

3. They may. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We might, 

2. Ye or you might, 

3. They might. 

CAN. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We can, 

2. Ye or you can, 

3. They can. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We could, 

2. Ye or you could, 

3. They could. 

AM. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We are, 

2. Ye or you are, 

3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We were, 

2. Ye or you were, 

3. They were. 



Participles. 



Imperfect^ 

Perfect^ 

Compound-perfect^ 



Being. 
Been. 
Having been. 



VERBS. 49 

MUST. 

This auxiliary has no change of termination, and is joined 
with the verbs only in the following tenses. 

Present Tense. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I must choose, 
Thou must choose, 
He must choose. 


Plural. 

1. We must choose, 

2. Ye or you must choose, 

3. They must choose. 




Perfect Tense. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I must have chosen, 
Thou must have chosen, 
He must have chosen. 


Plural. 

1. We must have chosen, 

2. Ye or you must have chosen, 

3. They must have chosen. 




FORMS OE 


THE VERB. 



There are three distinct forms of the verb- 
is The Simple form; as, I teach. 2. The 
Emphatic form; as I do teach. 3. The 
Progressive for m ; as, I am teaching. 

The Simple form of the verb, simply 
affirms something; as, I see; You write; 
They study. 

The Emphatic form affirms something 
with emphasis ; as, I do see; You do write; 
They do study ; I did see; You did ivrite; 
They did study. 

The Progressive form is used to denote 
an unfinished action or state of being ; as, I 
am walking; The man is standing. In the 
first of these examples, the verb denotes an 
unfinished action ; in the second, it denotes 
an unfinished state of being. The Progressive 
verh is formed by employing the verb to be, or 
one of its inflections, as an auxiliary to the 
5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAK- 

imperfect participle, through all its moods and 
tenses ; as, I am writing, I was writing, I 
have been writing, I had been writing, I 
shall or will be writing, I shall or will have 
been writing. 

OF VOICE. 

Voice, as used in grammar, denotes the 
relation of the action of the verb to the 
subject. 

There are tivo Voices; the Active and the 
Passive. 

The conjugation of a verb which expresses 
what is affirmed of an active subject, is called 
the Active voice; as, Edith gathers flowers. 

The conjugation of a verb that expresses 
what is affirmed of a passive subject, is styled 
the Passive voice ; as, Flowers are gathered 
by Edith. 

The Passive verb is formed by adding the 
verb to be, or one of its inflections, to the 
perfect participle of a transitive verb ; as, John 
will be reivarded; James was seen at the 
fair; Charles has been remunerated. 

Conjugation of tie Regular Transitive Verb TO LOVE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Pert. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Pen. Thou lovest, 2. Ye or you love, 
8, Pert. He loves. 3. They love. 



VERBS. 



51 



Singular, 

1. I loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 

3. He loved. 



Singular. 

1. I have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 

3. He has loved. 



Singular. 

1. I had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 

3. He had loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We loved, 

2. Ye or you loved, 

3. They loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have loved. 

2. Ye or you have loved, 

3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Plural. 
1. We had loved. 

Ye or you had loved, 



3. They had loved. 



Singular. 

1. I shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love 

3. He shall or will love, 



First Future Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We shall or will love, 

2. Ye or you shall or will love, 

3. They shall or will love. 



Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

loved, loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved. 3. They shall or will have loved. 



Singular. 
1 If I love, 

2. If thoiulove, 

3. If he love. 



Singular. 

1. If I loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, 

3. If he loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 



1. If we love. 

2. If ye or you love, 

3. If they love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we loved, 

2. If ye or you loved. 

3. If they loved. 



52 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. 

1. If I have loved, 

2. If thou hast loved, 

3. If he has loved. 



Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we have loved, 

2. If ye or you have loved, 

3. If they have loved. 



Pluperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved, 

3. If he had loved. 



Plural. 

1. If we had loved, 

2. If ye or you had loved, 

3. If they had loved. 



First Future Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall or will love, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love, 

3. If he shall or will love. 



Plural. 

1. If we shall or will love, 

2. If ye or you shall or will love, 

3. If they shall or will love. 



Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have 1. If we shall or will have 

loved, loved, 

2 If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye or you shall or will 

loved, have loved, 

3. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 

loved. loved. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Present 
Singular. 

1. I may, can, or must love, 1 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2 

must love, 

3. He may, can, or must love. 3 

Imperfect 

Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, or 

should love, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 

wouldst, or shouldst love, 
8. He might, could, would, 3. 
9T should love. 



Tense. 

Plural. 
. We may, can, or must love, 
. Ye or you may, can, or must 
love. 
They may, can, or must love. 

Tense. 

Plural. 
. We might, could, would, or 
should love, 
Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should love, 
They might, could, would, 
or should love. 



VERBS. 53 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may. can, or must have 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can or must 

have loved, have loved. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3 They may, can, or must have 

loved. loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have loved, should have loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 

loved, v loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should have loved. or should have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or you, or 
thou love. do ye or you love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, To love. Perfect Tense, To have loved. 

Participles. 

Imperfect, Loving. 

Perfect, Loved. 

Compound-perfect, Having loved. 

When the auxiliary do precedes the verb, it is said to be 
in the emphatic form ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Pers. I do love, 1. Pers. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. Ye or you do love, 

3. He does love. 3. They do love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love, 1 We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. Ye or you did love, 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. Ye or you are loved, 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. Ye or you were loved, 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. Ye or you have been loved. 

3. He has been loved, 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. Ye or you had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved, 1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. Ye or you shall or will be 

loved, loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will h&ve 

been loved, been loved, 

3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have been 

loved. loved. 



VERBS. 55 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

9 

Singular. Plural, 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If ye or you be loved, 

3. If lie be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If ye or you were loved, 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been loved, 1. If we have been loved, 

2. If thou hast been loved, 2. If ye or you have been loved, 

3. If he has been loved. 3. If they have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved, 1. If we had been loved, 

2. If thou hadst been loved, 2. If ye or you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved. 3, If they had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be loved, 1. If we shall or will be loved. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be 2. If ye or you shall or will be 

loved. loved, 

3. If he shall or will be loved. 3. If they shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have 1. If we shall or will have 

been loved, been loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye or you shall or will 

been loved, have been loved, 

8. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 
been loved. been loved. 



56 



ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be 1. We may, can, or must be 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

be loved, must be loved, 

3. He may, can, or must be 3. They may, can, or must be 

loved. loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. 

should be loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. 

wouldst, or shouldst be 
loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. 

should be loved. 



Plural. 
We might, could, should, or 

should be loved, 
Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should be 

loved, 
They might, could, would, 

or should be loved. 



Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

been loved, been loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

have been loved, must have been loved, 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

been loved. have been loved. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been loved, should have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 
been I^p^ been loved, 

3. He might could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have been or should have been 

loved. loved. 



VERBS, 



57 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou loved, or do thou 2. Be ye or you loved, or do 
be loved. ye or you be loved. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense, 
Perfect Tense, 



Imperfect, 
Perfect, 
Compound-p erfectj 



To be loved. 

To have been loved. 

Participles. 

Being loved. 

Loved. 

Having been loved. 



CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR THAN- 
SITIVE VERB TO SEE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We see, 

2. Ye or you see, 

3. They see. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We saw, 

2. Ye or you saw, 

3. They saw. 

Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have seen, 

2. Ye or you have seen, 

3. They have seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We had seen, 

2. Ye or you had seen^ 
8. They had seen. 



Singular. 

1. Pers. I see, 

2. Pers. Thou seest, 

3. Pers. He sees. 



Singular, 

1. I saw, 

2. Thou sawest, 

3. He saw. 



Singular. 

1. I have seen, 

2. Thou hast seen, 

3. He has seen. 



Singular. 

1. I had seen, 

2. Thou hadst seen, 
8. He had seen. 

.6 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will see, 1. We shall or will see, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt see, 2. Ye or you shall or will see, 

3. He shall or will see. 3. They shall or will see. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I shall or will have seen, 1. We shall or will have seen, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

seen, seen, 

3. He shall or will have seen. 3. They shall or will have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 







Present Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If I see, 
If thou see, 
If he see. 


1. If we see, 

2. If ye or you see, 

3. If they see. 

Imperfect Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If I saw, 
If thou saw, 
If he saw. 


1. If we saw, 

2. If ye or you saw, 

3. If they saw. 




Singular. 


Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If I have seen, 
If thou hast seen. 
If he has seen. 


1. If we have seen, 
, 2. If ye or you have seen, 
3. If they have seen. 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had seen, 1. If we had seen, 

2. If thou hadst seen, 2. If ye or you had seen, 

3. If he had seen. 3. If they had seen. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will see, 1. If we shall or will see, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt see, 2. If ye or you shall or will see, 

3. If he shall or will see. 3. If they shall or will see; 



VERBS. 59 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I shall or will have seen, 1. If we shall or will have seen, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye or you shall or will 

seen, have seen, 

3. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 

seen. seen. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can or must see, 1. We may, can or must see, 

2. Thoumayst, canst or must 2. Ye or you may, can or must 

see, see, 

3. He may, can or must see. 3. They may, can or must see. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would or 

should see, should see, 

2. Thou mightst, c o u 1 d s t , 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouidst, or shouldst see, would or should see, 

3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would or 

should see. should see. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can or must have 1. We may, can or must have 

seen, seen, 

2. Thoumayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can or must 

have seen, have seen, 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can or must have 

seen. seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would or 

should have seen, should have seen, 

2. Thou mightst, co ul d st , 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouidst or shouldst have would, or should have 

seen, seen, 

3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would or 

should have seen. should have seen. 



60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. See, or see thou, or do thou 2. See, or see ye or you, or do 
see. ye or you see. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, To see. Perfect Tense, To have seen. 



Participles. 



Imperfect, 

Perfect, 

Compound-perfect, 



Seeing. 
Seen. 
Having seen. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1 Pers. I am seen, 

2 Pers. Thou art seen, 

3 Pers. He is seen. 



Plural. 

1. We are seen, 

2. Ye or you are seen, 

3. They are seen. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I was seen, 

2. Thou wast seen, 

3. He was seen. 



Plural. 

1. We were seen, 

2. Ye or you were seen, 

3. They were seen. 



Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been seen, 1. We have been seen, 

2. Thou hast been seen, 2. Ye or you have been seen, 

3. He has been seen. 3, They have been seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I had been seen, 

2. Thou hadst beeu seen, 
8. He had been seen. 



Plural. 

1. We had been seen, 

2. Ye or you had been seen, 

3. They had been aeen. 



VERBS. 61 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be seen, 1. We shall or will be seen, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be seen, 2. Ye or you shall or will be 

seen, 

3. He shall or will be seen, 3. They shall or will be seen. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been 

seen, seen, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

been seen, been seen, 

3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have been 

seen. seen. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be seen, 1. If we be seen, 

2. If thou be seen, 2. If ye or you be seen, 

3. If he be seen. 3. If they be seen. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were seen, 1. If we were seen, 

2. If thou wert seen, 2. If ye or you were seen, 

3. If he were seen. 3. If they were seen. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been seen, 1. If we have been seen, 

2. If thou hast been seen, 2. If ye or you have been seen, 

3. If he has been seen. 3. If they have been seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I had been seen, 1. If we had been seen, 

2. If thou hadst been seen, 2. If ye or you had been seen, 

3. If he had been seen. 3. If they had been seen. 



62 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

x 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be seen, 1. If we shall or will be seen, 

2. If t.h<xu shalt or wilt be 2. If ye or you shall or will 

seen, be seen, 

3. If he shall or will be seen. 3. If they shall or will be seen. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have been 1. If we shall or will have 

seen, been seen, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye or you shall or will 

been seen, have been seen, 

3. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 

been seen. been seen. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be 1. We may, can, or must be 

seen, seen, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

be seen, be seen, 

3. He may, can, or must be 3. They may, can, or must be 

seen. seen. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would or 

should see. should see, 

2 Thou mightst, c o u 1 d s t , 2. Ye or you might, could, 

woulclst, or shouldst see, would, or should see, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 
should see. or should see. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can or must have 

been seen, been seen, 

2. Thou mayst, canst or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

have been seen, must have been seen, 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

been seen. have been seen. 



VERBS. 



63 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural, 

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been seen, should have been seen, 

2. Thou mights, c o u 1 d s t , 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst -would, or should have 
have been seen, been seen, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should have been seen. or should have been seen. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou seen, or do thou be 2. Be ye or you seen, or do ye 
seen. or you be seen. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, To be seem 

Perfect Tense, 



To have been seen. 



Imperfect, 
Perfect, 
Compound perfect, 



Participles. 



Being seen. 

Seen. 

Having been seen. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 

1 Pers. I am, 

2 Pers. Thou art, 

3 Pers. He is. 



Singular. 

1. I was, 

2. Thou wast, 

3. He was. 



Present Tense. 

Plural, 

1. We are, 

2. Ye or you are, 

3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We were, 

2. Ye or you were, 

3. They were. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. Ye or you have been, 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. Ye or you had been, 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. T shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. Ye or you shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. T shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

been, been, 

3. He shall or will have been. 3. They shall or will have 

been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. * Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If ye or you be, 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Indicative Form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am, 1. If we are, 

2. If thou art, 2. If ye or you are, 

3. If he is. 3. If they are. 



VERBS. 



65 



Singular. 

1. If I were, 

2. If thou wert, 

3. If he were. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Plural. 

1. If we were, 

2. If ye or you were, 

3. If they were. 



Singular. 

If I was, 

If thou wast, 

If he was, 



Indicative Form. 



Plural. 

1. If we were, 

2. If ye or you were, 

3. If they were. 



Perfect Tense, 



Singular. 

1. If I have been, 

2. If thou hast been, 

3. If he has been. 



Plural. 

1. If we have been, 

2. If ye or you have been, 

3. If they have been. 



Pluperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, 

3. If he had been. 



Plural. 

1. If we had been, 

2. If ye or you had been, 

3. If they had been. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall or will be, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be, 

3. If he shall or will be. 



First Future Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we shall or will be, 

2. If ye or you shall or will be, 

3. If they shall or will be. 



Second Future Tense. 



Singular. 
1. If I shall or will have 1. 
been, 



Plural. 

If we shall or will have 
been, 



2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye or you shall or will 



been, 



have been, 



3. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 
been, been. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be, 1. We may, can, or must be, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can or must 

be, be, 

3. He may, can or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be, should be, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst be, would, or should be, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should be. or should be. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

been, been, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

have been, have been, 

3. He may, can or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

been. have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would or 

should have been, should have been, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 

been, been, 

3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would, 

should have been. or should have been. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular.] Plural. 

% Be, or be thou, or do thou 2. Be, or be ye or you,' or do ye 
be. or you be. 



VERBS. 67 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, To be. Perfect Tense, To have been. 

Participles. 



Imperfect, 


Being. 


Perfect, 


Been. 


Compound perfect. 


Having been, 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO WRITE, 
IN THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 Pers. I am writing, 1. We are writing, 

2 Pers. Thou art writing, 2. Ye or you are writing, 

3 Pers. He is writing. 3. They are writing. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was writing, 1. We were writing, 

2. Thou wast writing, 2. Ye or you were writing, 

3. He was writing. 3. They were writing. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been writing, 1. We have been writing, 

2. Thou hast been writing, 2. Ye or you have been wri- 

ting, 

3. He has been writing. 3. They have been writing. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been writing, 1. We had been writing, 

2. Thou hadst been writing, 2. Ye or you had been writing, 

3. He had been writing. 3. They had been writing. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be writing, 1. We shall or will be writing, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be wri- 2. Ye or you shall or will be 

ting, writing, 

3. He shall or will be wri- 3. They shall or will be wri- 

ting, ting. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been 

writing, writing, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

been writing, been writing, . 

3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have 

writing. been writing. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be writing, 1. If we be writing, 

2. If thou be writing, 2. If ye or you be-writing,, 

3. If he be writing. 3. If they be writing. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were writing, 1. If we were writing, 

2. If thou wert writing, 2. If ye of you were writing, 

3. If he were writing. 3. If they were writing. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been writing, 1. If we have been writing, 

2. If thou hast been writing, 2. If ye or you have been wri- 

ting, 

3. If he has been writing. 3. If they have been writing. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been writing, 1. If we had been writing, 

2. If thou hadst been writing, 2. If ye or you had been wri- 

ting, 

3. If he had been writing. 3. If they had been writing. 



VERBS. 69 



First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be wri- 1. If we shall or will be wri- 

ting, ting, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be 2. If ye or you shall or will 

writing, be writing, 

3. If he shall or will be wri- 3. If they shall or will be 

ting. writing. 



Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have 1. If we shall or will have 

been writing, been writing, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye or you shall or will 

been writing, have been writing, 

3. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 

been writing. been writing. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be wri- 1. We may, can, or must be 

ting, writing, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

be writing, be writing, 

3. He may, can, or must be 3. They may, can, or must be 

writing. writing. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be writing, should be writing, 

2. Thou mightst, c o ul d s t , 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst be would, or should be wri- 

writing, ting, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should be writing. or should be writing. 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can or must have 

been writing, been writing, 

2. Thoumayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 
, have been writing, have been writing, 

3. He may, can or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

been writing. have been writing. 



Pluperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. 

should have been wri- 
ting, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. 

wouldst, or shouldst 
have been writing, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. 

should have been wri- 
ting. 



Plural. 

We might, could, would, or 
should have been wri- 
ting, 

Ye or you might, could, 
would, or should have 
been writing, 

They might, could, would, 
or should have been wri- 
ting. 



2. 



Singular. 
Be writing, 
writing, or 
writing. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Plural. 
Be writing, or be ye or you 



or be thou 2, 
do thou be 



writing, or do ye or you 
be writing. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, To be wri- Perfect Tense, To have been 



ting. 



writing. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 71 

LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 

Abide 
Am 
Arise 
Awake 

Bake [forth 

Bear, to bring 
Bear, to carry 
Beat 
Begin 
Bend 
Bereave 
Beseech 
Bid 

Bind un- 
Bite 
Bleed 
Blow 
Break 
Breed 
Bring 
Build re- 
Burst 
Buy 
Cast 
Catch 
Chide 
Choose 

Cleave, to adhere 
Cleave, to split 
CliDg 
Clothe 
Come be- 
Cost 
Crow 



Imperfect. 



Perfect Participle. 



abode 


abode 


was 


been 


arose 


arisen 


awoke R* 


awaked 


baked 


baken r 


bare or bore 


born 


bore or bare 


borne 


beat 


beaten or beat 


began 


begun 


bent R 


bent r 


bereft R 


bereft r 


besought 


besought 


bade, bid 


bidden 


bound 


bound 


bit 


bitten, bit 


bled 


bled 


blew 


blown 


broke, brake 


broken 


bred 


bred 


brought 


brought 


built R 


built r 


burst 


burst 


brought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


caught R 


caught r 


chid 


chidden, chid 


chose 


chosen 


clave R 


cleaved 


clove or cleft 


cloven or cleft 


clung 


clung 


clothed 


clad r 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


crew R 


crowed 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



Perfect Participle. 



Creep 
Cut 


crept 
cut 


crept 
cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, challenge 
Deal [is R 


dared 
dealt R 


dared 
dealt R 


Dig 

Do mis-un- 


dug R 
did 


dug R 
done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Dwell 


dwelt r 


dwelt r 


Eat 


ate or eat 


eaten 


Fall he- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 
Find 


fought 
found 


fought 
found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 

Fly 

Forbear 


flung 

flew 

forbore 


flung 
flown 
forborne 


Forget 
Forsake 


forgot 
forsook 


forgotten, forgot 
forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get be-for 

Gild 

Gird he-en 

Give for-mis- 

Go 

Grave en- r 

Grind 

Grow 

Have 


got 

gilt r 

girt r 

gave 

went 

graved 

ground 

grew 

had 


gotten or got 

gilt r 

girt r 

given 

gone 

graven 

ground 

grown 

had 


Hang 
Hear 


hung 
heard 


hung 
heard 


Heave 


hove r 


hoven r 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn» 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



73 



Present. 



Imperfect 



Perfect Participle. 



Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold he-with 


held 


held or holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 
Knit 


kept 
knit r 


kept 

knit or knitted 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lay 

Lead mis- 


laid 
led 


laid 
led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to lie doivn 


lay 


lain 


Light 


lighted or lit 


lighted or lit 


Load 


loaded 


laden R 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown r 


Pay re- 
Put 
Quit 
Read 


paid 
put 
quit r 
read 


paid 
put 
quit 
read 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


rode 


Ring 
Rise a- 


rang or rung 
rose 


rung 
risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Rot 


rotted 


rotten r 


Run 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn r 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 
7 


sought 


sought 



74 



ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



Present 



Imperfect. 



Perfect Participle. 



Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set fee- 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape mis- 
Shave 


shaped 
shaved 


shapen r 
shaven r 


Shear 


shore r 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone r 


shone r 


Show 5 * 5 


showed 


shown 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 
Sink 


sang or sung 
sank or sunk 


sung 
sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 
Slide 


slept 
slid 


slept 
slidden 


Sling 
Slink 


slang, slung 
slank, slunk 


slung 
slunk 


Slit 


slit R 


slit or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown r 


Speak be- 
Speed 
Spend mis- 
Spill 


spoke 
sped 
spent 
spilt R 


spoken 
sped 
spent 
spilt R 


Spin 
Spit fee- 
Split 
Spread fee- 


spun 

spat, spit 

split . 

spread 


spun 
spit 
k split 
spread 



* Shew, shewed, shewn } - 
foot of next page. 



-pronounced show, etc. See 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



75 



Present. 
Spring 

Stand with-etc. 
Steal 
Stick 
String 
Stride be- 
Strike 
String 
Strive 
Strew * be- 
Strow 6^- 
Swcar 
Sweat 
Sweep 
Swell 
Swim 
Swing 

Take be-etc. 
Teach mis-re 
Tear un- 
Tell 

Think be- 
Thrive 
Throw 
Thrust 
Tread 
Wax 
Wear 
Weave 
Weep 
Win 
Wind 
Work 
Wring 
Write 



Imperfect. 

sprang, sprang, 

stood 

stole 

stuck 

stung 

strode or strid 

struck 

struug 

strove 

strewed 

strowed 

swore 

sweat 

swept 

swelled 

swum 

swan< 

took 

taught 

tore 

told 

thought 

throve r 

threw 

<hrust 

trod 

waxed 

wore 

wove 

wept 

won 

wound r 

wrought r 

wrung r 

wrote 



Perfect Participle. 

sprung 

stood 

stolen 

stuck 

stung ^ 

stridden 

struck 

strung 

striven 

strewed or 

strown. strewed 

sworn 

sweat 

swept 

swollen r 

swum 

swung 

taken 

taught 

torn 

told 

thought 

thriven r 

thrown 

thrust 

trodden 

waxen R 

worn 

woven 

wept 

won 

wound 

wrought, worked 

wrung 

written 



* Strew and shew are now giving way to strow and 
show, as they are pronounced. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Present Imperfect, Perfect Participle, 

Can could 

May might 



Must 
Ought 

Quoth quoth 

Shall should 

Will would 

Wis wist 

Wit or) wot 

Wot f 



MODELS FOR PARSING VERBS. 

The Verbs in Italics are parsed. 

THE REGULAR TRANSITIVE VERB. 

Arethusa loves her parents. 
Model 1. Loves is a regular transitive 
verb, in the indicative mood, present tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with 
its nominative Areilmsa, according to Rule 
18. A verb must agree with its nominative in 
person and number. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing loves. 

Loves is a verb, because it is a word that 
signifies to act ; regular, because it forms its 
imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and 
its perfect participle, by adding ed or d to the 
present tense ; transitive, because it expresses 
an action which requires the addition of an 
object to complete the sense ; in the indicative 



ANALYTICAL EXEECISES. 77 

mood, because it simply affirms a thing ; pres- 
ent tense, because it denotes what is passing 
at the time in which it is mentioned ; of the 
third person, because its nominative is of the 
third person ; in the singular number, because 
its nominative is singular. 

THE IRREGULAR INTRANSITIVE VERB. 

Francis goes to school. 

Model 2. Goes is an irregular iiitransitive 
verb, in the indicative mood, present tense, third 
person, singular number, and agrees with its 
nominative Francis; according to Rule 18. 
A verb must agree with its nominative in per- 
son and number. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing goes. 

Goes is a verb, because it is a word that 
signifies to act ; irregular, because it does not 
form its imperfect tense of the indicative mood, 
and its perfect participle, by adding d or edto 
the present tense ; intransitive, because it ex- 
presses action which is confined to the subject 
or nominative ; in the indicative mood, because 
it simply affirms a thing ; present tense, be- 
cause it denotes what is passing at the time in 
which it is mentioned ; of the third person, 
because its nominative is of the third person ; 
in the singular number, because its nominative 
is singular. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE PASSIVE VERB. 

The deer was shot by the hunter. 

Model 3. Was is an auxiliary to shot, was 
shot is an irregular passive verb, in the in- 
dicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, 
singular number, and agrees with its nominative 
deer, according to Rule 18. A verb must 
agree with its nominative in person and num- 
ber. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing Was shot. 

Was shot is a verb, because it expresses 
action ; irregular, because it does not form its 
imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and its 
perfect participle, by adding d or ed to the 
present tense ; passive, because it expresses 
action received or endured by the subject or 
nominative ; in the indicative mood, because it 
simply affirms a thing ; imperfect tense, because 
it denotes an action which transpired within a 
period of time fully past ; of the third person, 
because its nominative is of the third person ; 
in the singular number, because its nominative 
is singular. 

THE VERB TO BE. 

Imogene will be an elegant writer. 

Model 4, Wiil is an auxiliary to be, will he 
is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indica- 
tive mood, first future tense, third person, sin- 
gular number, and agrees with its nominative 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 79 

Imogene, according to Rule 18. A verb must 
agree with its nominative in'person and number. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing Will be. 

Will he is a verb, because it signifies to ex- 
ist ; irregular, because it does not form its im- 
perfect tense of the indicative mode, and its 
perfect participle, by adding d or ed to the 
present tense ; intransitive, because it expresses 
being which is confined to the subject or nom- 
inative; in the indicative mood, because it 
simply affirms a thing ; first future tense, be- 
cause it denotes what will take place hereafter ; 
of the third person, because its nominative is 
of the third person ; in the singular number, 
because its nominative is singular. 

THE PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 

The leaves are falling. 

Model 5. Are is an auxiliary to falling, are 
falling is an intransitive verb, in the pro- 
gressive form, in the indicative mood, present 
tense, third person, plural number, and agrees 
with its nominative leaves, according to Rule 
18. A verb must agree with its nominative in 
person and number. 

Remark. — As a verb in the progressive 
form always ends in ing, it is not necessary in 
parsing, to state whether it is regular or irreg- 
ular. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing Are falling. 

Are falling is a verb, because it expresses 
action ; intransitive, because it expresses action 
which is confined to the subject or nominative ; 
in the progressive form, because it denotes an 
action which is unfinished and in progress ; in 
the indicative mood, because it simply affirms 
a thing ; present tense, because it denotes what 
is passing at the time in which it is mentioned ; 
of the third person, because its nominative is of 
the third person ; in the plural number, because 
its nominative is plural. 

A VERB IN THE INFINITIVE MOOD WITH 
THE SIGN TO EXPRESSED. 

Amelia intends to study Botany, 

Model 6. To study is a regular transitive 
verb, in the infinitive mood, present tense, 
present to study, perfect to have studied, and 
is governed by the verb intends, according to 
Rule 20. A verb in the infinitive mood may 
be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, par- 
ticiple or pronoun. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing To study. 

To study is a verb, because it expresses 
action ; regular, because it forms its imperfect 
tense of the indicative mood, and its perfect 
participle, by adding ed or d to the present 
tense ; transitive, because it expresses an action 
which requires the addition of an object to 



ANALYTICAL EXEKCISES. 81 

complete the sense ; in the infinitive mood, be- 
cause it expresses action in a general and 
unlimited manner without any distinction of 
person or number; present tense, because it 
denotes present time. 

Remark. The present infinitive can scarcely 
be said to denote any particular time. It gene- 
rally depends on another verb, and is therefore 
relative in time. It often denotes what is 
future; as, "The life to come;" "Rapture 
yet to be" 

THE INFINITIVE MOOD— Without the sign To expressed. 

Let the boy do the work. 

Model 7. Do is an irregular transitive 
verb, infinitive mood, without the sign to ex- 
pressed; according to Rule 21. The verbs which 
follow bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, help, 
let, and their participles, are generally in the 
infinitive mood, without the sign to expressed. 
It is in the present tense, present to do, perfect 
to have done, and is governed by the noun 
boy; according to Rule 20. A verb in the 
infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, 
noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing do. 

Do is a verb, because it expresses action ; 

irregular, because it does not form its imperfect 

tense of the indicative mood, and its perfect 

participle, by adding d or ed to the present 

8 



82 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

tense; transitive, because it expresses an action 
which requires the addition of an object to 
complete the sense ; in the infinitive mood, be- 
cause it expresses action in a general and un- 
limited manner, without any distinction of 
person or number; in the present tense, be- 
cause it denotes present time. 

Remark. When an infinitive follows a verb 
in the imperative mood, it is always found in 
the present tense. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson 1. — Parsing. 
Deep rivers move with silent majesty, shallow 
brooks are noisy. A clear conscience fears no accu- 
sation. A king's favor is no inheritance. A little 
leak will sink a great ship. An evil lesson is soon 
learned. A small spark makes a great fire. Dili- 
gence is the mistress of success. Entertain honor 
with humility, and poverty with patience Example 
teaches more than precept. Use the means, and God 
will give the blessing. The truth is powerful, and 
will ultimately prevail. Unless the Lord assist you, 
all your efforts are in vain. The times change, and 
we change with them. Modesty is one of the chief 
ornaments of youth. No confidence can be placed in 
those who are in the habit of lying. 

Lesson 2. — Parsing. 
A contented mind is an inestimable treasure. The 
most secret acts of goodness are seen and approved 
by the Almighty. When we acknowledge our mis- 
conduct, and are sorry for it, generous and good 
persons will pity and forgive us. We may escape 
the censure of others, when we do wrong privately ; 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES- 83 

but we cannot avoid the reproaches of our own mind. 
Fancy paints pleasures at a distance, with beautiful 
colors ; but possession often takes away their beauty. 
A family where the great Father of the universe is 
duly reverenced ; where parents are honored and 
obeyed ; where brothers and sisters dwell together in 
love and harmony ; where peace and order reign ; 
where there is no law but the law of kindness and 
wisdom ; is surely a most delightful and interesting 
spectacle ! Sincerity and truth form the basis of 
every virtue. Change and alteration form the very 
essence of the world, True happiness is of a retired 
nature, and an enemy to pomp and noise. The value 
of any possession is to be chiefly estimated, by the 
relief which it can bring us in the time of our 
greatest need. 

Lesson 3. — Parsing. 

Tranquillity of mind is always most likely to be 
attained, when the business of the world is tempered 
with thoughtful and serious retreat. The veil which 
covers from our sight the events of succeeding years, 
is a veil woven by the hand of mercy. The chief 
misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced to 
some vices or follies which we have committed. Man, 
in his highest earthly glory, is but a reed floating on 
the stream of time, and forced to follow every new 
direction of the current. The happiness of every 
man depends more upon the state of his own mind, 
than upon any one external circumstance. Time 
once past never returns : the moment which is lost, 
is lost for ever. The man of true fortitude may be 
compared to the castle built on a rock, which defies 
the attacks of surrounding waters : the man of a 
feeble and timorous spirit, to a hut placed on the 
shore, which every wind shakes, and every wave 
overflows. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Lesson 4. — Parsing. 

" Dear are the days of youth ! Age dwells on their 
remembrance through the mist of time. In the 
twilight he recalls the sunny hours of morn. He 
lifts his spear with trembling hand. ' Not thus feebly 
did I raise the steel before my fathers ! ' Past is the 
race of heroes ! But their fame rises on the harp ; 
their souls ride on the wings of the wind ; they hear 
the sound through the sighs of the storm, and rejoice 
in their hall of clouds ! Such is Oalmar. The gray 
stone marks his narrow house. He looks down from 
eddying tempests; he rolls his form in the whirlwind, 
and hovers on the blast of the mountain. 

"In Morven dwelt the chief, a beam of war to 
Fingal. His steps in the field were marked in 
blood. Lochlin's sons had fled before his angry 
spear ; but mild was the eye of Calmar ; soft was the 
flow of his yellow locks : they streamed like the 
meteor of the night. No maid was the sigh of his 
soul : his thoughts were given to friendship — to 
dark-haired Orla, destroyer of heroes ! Equal were 
their swords in battle ; but fierce was the pride of 
Orla : gentle alone to Calmar." 

Lesson 5. — Parsing. 

" What form rises on the roar of clouds ? Whose 
dark ghost gleams on the red streams of tempests? 
His voice rolls on the thunder. 'Tis Orla, the brown 
chief of Oithona. He was unmatched in war. Peace 
to thy soul, Orla ! thy fame will not perish. Nor 
thine, Calmar ! Lovely wast thou, son of blue-eyed 
Mora; but not harmless was thy sword. It hangs in 
thy cave. Dhe ghosts of Lochlin shriek around its 
steel. Hear thy praise, Calmar ! It dwells in the 
voice of the mighty. Thy name shakes on the echoes 
of Morven. Then raise thy fair locks, sin of Mora. 
Spread them on the arch of the rainbow; and smile 
through the tears of the storm/' 



PRONOUNS- 85 

OF PRONOUNS, 

A Pronoun is a word substituted for a noun, 
to prevent the repetition of the same word ; as, 
Hugh came; but he came too late; Louisa can 
read ; but she cannot write ; The earth is a large 
globe; its diameter is about eight thousand 
miles. 

A Pronoun sometimes stands for a sentence, 
or for a member of a sentence; as, If he pur- 
sue an honest course, it will* be for his own 
interest. 

Pronouns are divided into two classes, Per- 
sonal and Relative. 

OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns may be easily known 
by their denoting the persons of the nouns for 
which they stand. 

There are five personal pronouns ; i~, tkou 9 
he, she, it ; with their plurals, we, ye or you, 
they. Thou and ye are now confined to the 
solemn style. 

To personal pronouns belong gender, person, 
number, and case. 

Gender has respect only to the third person 
singular of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is 
masculine ; she is feminine ; it is neuter. 

The Persons of pronouns are three in each 
number. Singular. / is the first person ; thou 
is the second person; he, she, or it, is the third 
person. Plural. We is the first person ; ye 



86 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

or you is the second person ; they is the third 
person. 

The Numbers of pronouns, like those of 
nouns, are two, the singular and the plural. 
Singular, I, thou, he, she, it. Plural. We, ye or 
you, they. * 

Pronouns have three Cases ; the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

Each case of the pronoun, usually has a 
form peculiar to^ itself; as, I, my, me} He, his, 
him. 



DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 


1 


FIRST 


PERSON. 




Sing. 






Plur. 


Nom. I, 






Nom. we, 


Poss. my, 






Poss. our, 


Obj. me. 






Obj. US. 




SECOND 


PERSON. 




Sivg. 






Plur. 


Nom. thou, 
Poss. thy, 
Obj. thee. 






Nom. ye or you, 
Poss. your, 
06/. you. 




THIRD 


PERSON. 




Mas. Sing. 






PW, 


Nom he, 






Nom. they, 


Poss. his, 






Pass, their, 


Obj. him. 






06/. them. 




TURD 


PERSON. 




Fern. Sing. 






Plur. 


N>m. she, 
Poss. her, 






Nom. they, 
Po.ss. their, 


Obj. her. 






Obj. them. 



PRONOUNS. 87 

THIRD PERSON. 

Kent. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. it, Nam. they, 

Pass, its, Pass, their, 

Obj. it. Obj. them. 

Remark 1. Mine and £Ame, instead of my 
and %f, were formerly used before a wwe?, or 
silent h ; as, " Blot out all mme iniquities." — 
Bible. u It was thou, a man, wwwg equal, my 
guide, and mine acquaintance." — Id. 

Rem. 2. Own is often used in conjunction 
with possessives, for the sake of emphasis ; as, 
My own house ; The boy's own book. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Myself j yourself j or thyself, himself herself 
itself, and their plurals, are called reciprocal or 
compound, personal pronouns, and are generally 
used in apposition with nouns and other pro- 
nouns. 

"; Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, often 
include both the possessor and the thing pos- 
sessed ; as, This orange is mine ; That book is 
thine; This fan is hers ; These goods are ours ; . 
Those pears are yours ; That property is theirs. 
As the pronouns in these examples involve two 
cases, they may with propriety be parsed as 
compound personal pronouns. This orange is 
mine, is equivalent to the sentence, This orange 
is my orange. This Ln is hers, is equivalent to 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the sentence, This fan is her fan. This property- 
is theirs, is equivalent to the sentence, This 
property is their property. 

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Relative Pronouns are such as relate; in 
general, to a word or phrase going before, 
which is called the antecedent ; as, The mm 
who is honest, will be respected ; The time 
which is past, is gone forever ; The thief that 
stole my horse, has been arrested. 

The relative pronouns are- ivho, which, that, 
and zvhat 

Who relates to persons ; as, The man who 
studies, will increase in knowledge. 

Which is applied to irrational creatures, and 
to inanimate things ; as, The bird which you 
gave me, sings very sweetly ; This is the watch 
which I purchased in Boston. 

That is applied to both persons and things; 
as the man that labors should be rewarded; 
The roses that grow in my garden, are very 
beautiful. 

What is often used as a kind of compound 
or double relative, including both the ante- 
cedent and the relative, and is equivalent to 
the thing which; as, "This is what I wanted;" 
that is, the thing which I wanted, or the thing 
that I wanted. 

Remark 1. That is frequently used to pre- 
vent the repetition of who and which. 



peoxouxs. 89 

Rem. 2. Which and what, when used in ask- 
ing questions, lose their pronominal character, 
and become interrogative adjectives ; as, Which 
book did he read ? What enemy has done this ? 

Rem. 3. Whoever and Whosoever are also 
compound or double relatives, containing an 
antecedent and a relative ; and should be ana- 
lyzed like the compound tvhat; as, Whoever 
reads the Bible attentively and impartially, will 
be convinced of its divine origin In this ex- 
ample, ivhoever is equivalent to he who. 

Relative Pronouns are not varied on account 
of gender, person, or number. 

Who and which are thus declined : 

Norn. Who, JSfom. Which, 

Pass. Whose, Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom. Obj. Which. 

Whoever and whosoever are thus declined : 

Nom. Whoever, Nom. Whosoever, 

Poss. Whosoever, Poss. Whosesoever, 

Obj. Whomever, Obj. Whomsoever. 

Who is an interrogative pronoun when used 
in asking questions ; as, Who did the work ? 
This pronoun has no antecedent, when used in 
asking questions. 

Which and what, when associated with ever, 
and soever, may be denominated Compound 
Pronouns; as, Hortensia, you may study 
whichever science you would prefer; Luella, 
select whatever book you like best. 

Obs. Some writers would consider which- 



90 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

ever and whatever in these examples, compound 
relative pronouns ; but, as they do not involve 
antecedents, they cannot with propriety be 
called compound relatives. They may be 
styled compound pronouns. The sentences 
containing the preceding examples, when trans- 
posed, will read thus : Hortensia, you may 
study the science which you would prefer; 
LueUa, select the book which you like best. 

MODELS FOR PARSING THE PERSONAL 
PRONOUNS. 

The words in Italics are parsed, 

^IIE FIRST PERSON. 

jTwish to see my friend. 

Model 1. J is a personal pronoun, of the 
first person, singular number, in the nom- 
inative case to the verb wish, according to 
Rule 1. A noun or a pronoun is in the nom- 
inative case to the verb of which it is the sub- 
ject. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing I. 

JTis a pronoun, because it is a word substi- 
tuted for a noun; personal, because by its form 
it shows of what person it is ; of the first per- 
son, because it represents the speaker ; in the 
singular number, because the noun which it 
represents is singular ; in the nominative case, 
because it denotes the subject of a finite verb. 









PROXOUNS. 91 

Remark.— In parsing a personal pronoun of 
the first or second person, we do not specify 
the gender, because the speaker and the per- 
son addressed are supposed to be present. The 
pronouns i, we, thou, ye, and you, are alike 
applicable to both males Kadi females. 

THE SECOND PERSON. 

Lewis, you should reform. 

Model 2. You is a personal pronoun, of the 
second person, singular number, in the nom- 
inative case to the verb should reform, ac- 
cording to Rule 1. A noun or a pronoun is 
in the nominative case to the verb of which it 
is the subject. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing You. 

You is a pronoun, because it i» a word sub- 
stituted for a noun ; personal, because by its 
form, it shows of what person it is ; of the 
second person, because the noun which it rep- 
resents is of the second person ; in the singular 
number, because the noun which it represents 
is singular; in the nominative case, because it 
denotes the subject of a finite verb. 

THE THIRD PERSON. 

Archimedes was a celebrated geometrician ; he 

was a native of Syracuse in Sicily. 

Model 3. He is a personal pronoun, and 

represents Archimedes, with which it agrees in 

gender, person and number, according to Rule 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

14. Personal pronouns must agree with the 
nouns which they represent in gender, person 
and number ; it is in the nominative case to 
the verb ivas, according to Rule 1. A noun 
or a pronoun is in the nominative case to the 
verb of which it is the subject. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing He. 

He is a pronoun, because it is a word sub- 
stituted for a noun ; personal, because by its 
form, it shows of what person it is; of the third 
person, because the noun which it represents is 
of the third person ; in the singular number, 
because the noun w T hich it represents is singu- 
lar ; in the nominative case, because it denotes 
the subject of a finite verb. 

THE COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUN. 
Wellington, the victory is yours. 

Model 4. Yours is a compound personal 
pronoun, representing both the possessor and 
the thing possessed, and is equivalent to your 
victory. Your is a personal pronoun of the 
second person, singular number, in the jiossess- 
ive case, it possesses victory, and is governed 
by it ; according to Rule 6. The possessive 
case is governed by the name of the thing pos- 
sessed. Victory is a common noun, of the 
neuter gender, third person, singular number, 
in the nominative case after is, one of the 
inflections of the verb to be, according to Rule 



PRONOUNS. 93 

19. Intransitive and passive verbs have the 
same case after them as before them, when 
both words relate to the same person or thing. 

MODELS FOR PARSING THE RELATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 

The words in Italics are parsed. 

" Ignatius, ivho was bishop of Antioch, con- 
versed with the apostles." 

Model 1. Who is a relative pronoun, and 
has Ignatius for its antecedent, with which it 
agrees in gender, person, and number, accord- 
ing to Rule 15. Relative pronouns must 
agree with their antecedents, in gender, person, 
and number ; it is in the nominative case to the 
verb was, according to Rule 16. The relative 
is in the nominative case to the verb, when 
there is no intervening nominative. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing who. 

Who is a pronoun, because it is a word sub- 
stituted for a noun ; relative, because it relates 
to an antecedent ; of the third person, because 
its antecedent is of the third person ; in the 
singular number, because its antecedent is sin- 
gular ; in the nominative case, because it de- 
notes the subject of a finite verb. 

THE COMPOUND RELATIVE. 
I believe zvhat he said. 
Model 2. What is a compound relative pro- 
noun, including both the antecedent and the 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

relative, and is equivalent to the thing ivhich. 
Thing, the antecedent part of what, is a com- 
mon noun, of the neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, in the objective case governed 
by the transitive verb believe, according to Rule 
8. Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
Which, the relative part of what, is a relative 
pronoun, and has thing for its antecedent, with 
which it agrees in gender, person, and number, 
according to Rule 15. Relative pronouns 
must agree with their antecedents, in gender, 
person and number ; it is in the objective case 
governed by the transitive verb said, according 
to Rule 17- When there is an intervening 
nominative, the relative is governed by the fol- 
lowing verb, or by some other word in its own 
member of the sentence. 

WHO INTERROGATIVELY USED. 

Who broke that slate ? 
Model 3. Who is a relative pronoun inter- 
rogatively used ; it is of the third person, sin- 
gular number, in the nominative case to the 
verb broke, according to Rule 16. The relative 
is in the nominative case to the verb, when 
there is no intervening nominative. 

Remark. — The relative has no antecedent, 
when used in asking questions. 

THE COMPOUND PRONOUN. 
Hortensia you may study whichever science 
you would prefer. 
Mudel 4. Whichever is a compound pronoun, 



PKONOUNS- 95 

and the phrase whichever science is equivalent 
to the science which. Science is a common noun, 
of the neuter gender, third person, singular 
number, in the objective case, governed by the 
transitive verb study, according to Rule 8. 
Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
Which is a relative pronoun, and has science for 
its antecedent, with which it agrees in gender, 
person, and number, according to Rule 15. 
Relative pronouns must agree with their ante- 
cedents in gender, person, and number ; it is in 
the objective case governed by the transitive 
verb would prefer, according to Rule 17. When 
there is an intervening nominative, the relative 
is governed by the following verb, or, by some 
other word in its own member of the sentence. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson 1. — Parsing. 

I heard the man read, and he read well. That 
lady is an admirable scholar ; she has written on va- 
rious subjects ; her style is easy, and often sublime. 
I saw your brother, and gave him your letter. I 
taught Eliza to read, and you taught her to write. 
If pupils study, they will improve. That man is an 
accomplished gentleman ; his literary attainments are 
of the first order. The rose is beautiful, but it soon 
fades. A tree is known by its fruit. All the enjoy- 
ments of this world are evanescent in their nature ; 
they cannot satisfy an immortal soul. " Fingal, tall 
in his ship, stretched his bright lance before him. 
Terrible was the gleam of his steel : it was like the 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



green meteor of death, setting in the heath of Mai- 
mer, when the traveler is alone, and the broad moon 
is darkened in Heaven/ * 



Lesson 2. — Parsing. 

I can do the work myself. You may go yourself. 
He will come himself. She prefers studying by her- 
self. He himself shall bear all the blame. The boy 
went to Philadelphia by himself. Every man must 
account for himself. We will do the work ourselves. 
You may go yourselves. They must come them- 
selves. They performed it themselves. Men often 
hurt themselves by vain rajge. This paper is mine ; 
that is yours. The joys of heaven will soon be thine. 
That boy lost his own hat, and stole mine. My pen 
is better than yours. Your shawl is larger than hers, 
but hers is finer than yours. Their buildings are 
better than ours ; but our farm is better than theirs. 

Lesson 3. — Parsing. 

My old teacher who resides in Columbus, has come 
to see me ; he is the man with whom I studied geolo- 
gy and astronomy. Our best friends are those who 
tell us of our faults, and teach us how to correct 
them. Those men whom you saw are merchants ; 
they reside in Lexington. He was a patriot whose 
name will not be forgotten. The man who has no 
friends is poor indeed. The lady that wrote this 
novel, has gone to Europe. The man that cannot 
live well to day, will be less qualified to live well to- 
morrow. This is the house which I purchased from 
you. Who wrote this letter ? Chesterfield. Who 
invented the telescope ? Galileo. Whose knife have 
you? Frank's. Whose melodeon is that? Mary's. 
Whom did you meet ? Alfred. Whom did that boy 
strike ? Henry. 



. 



ADJECTIVES. 97 

Lesson 4. — Parsing. 

I knew what lie would say. He was pleased with 
what he heard. You know what must necessarily 
follow. Our ignorance of what is to come, and of 
what is really good or evil, should correct anxiety 
about worldly success. Moral and religious instruc- 
tion, derives its efficiency, not so much from what 
men are taught to know, as from what they are 
brought to feel. Whoever opposes the religion of 
the Bible, is a traitor to God, and an enemy to man- 
kind. Whosoever will be a true follower of Christ, 
must renounce the sinful pleasures of the world. 
Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. 
Arabella, read whichever book entertains you best. 
Delia may pursue whatever course she would prefer. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word used to express the 
quality of a noun, or to define the extent of 
its meaning ; as/ A wise man, a benevolent 
man, one man, each man, that man, those men, 
ten men. 

In English, adjectives are varied only to ex- 
press the degrees of comparison. - 

Adjectives have three degrees of compari- 
son ; the Positive, the Comparative, and the 
Superlative. 

The positive degree expresses the quality of 
a noun, without any increase or diminution ; as, 
warm, cold, violent 

The comparative degree increases or lessens 
the positive in signification ; as, warmer ', 
colder, more violent, less warm, less cold, 
less violent. 
9 



98 ENGLISH GEAMMAE, 

The superlative degree increases or lessens 
the positive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, 
warmest, coldest, most violent, least warm, 
least cold, least violent. 

Monosyllables are generally compared by 
adding er and est to the positive ; as, kind, 
Tcinder, kindest; but when the word ends in 
e, we add r only, in the comparative, and st in 
the superlative ; as, wise, wiser, wisest 

Words of more than one syllable, are gen- 
erally compared by the adverbs more and 
most ; as, ruinous, more ruinous, most ruin- 
ous; charitable, more charitable, most 
charitable; amiable, more amiable, most 
amiable. 

A degree below the positive, is expressed by 
the adverbs less and least; as, sour, less 
sour, least sour; benevolent, less benevolent, 
least benevolent 

The termination ish, also, expresses a de- 
gree below the positive ; as, white, whitish, 
black, blackish; red, reddish ;blue,blueish; 
brown, brownish, sweet, sweetish; salt, salt- 
ish. These are by some called diminutive 
adjectives. 

The adverb rather is used to express a 
small degree of a quality ; as, " She is rather 
profuse in her expenses." 

Adjectives of two syllables ending in y ; as, 
lovely, happy ; and in le after a mute ; as, 
able, ample; and dissyllables accented on the 



ADJECTIVES. 99 

last syllable; as, discreet, polite, may be 
easily compared by er and est; as, lovely, 
lovelier, loveliest; happy, happier, happi- 
est; able, abler, ablest ; ample, ampler, am- 
plest; discreet, discreeter, discreetest ; polite, 
politer, politest. Words of more than two 
syllables, seldom admit of these terminations. 

When the positive ends in a single conson- 
ant, preceded by a single vowel, the consonant 
is doubled before er and est; as, hot, hotter, 
hottest. 

The superlative is sometimes formed by ad- 
ding most to the end of the adjective ; as, 
under, undermost, upper, uppermost, hind- 
most ; foremost, utmost, nethermost. 

Some adjectives are compared irregularly ; 
as, good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; 
little, less, least; much or many, more, 
most, near, nearer, nearest or next; late, 
later, latest or last; old, older, oldest or el- 
dest 

Adjectives preceded by very, exceedingly, 
extremely, divinely, and the like, are in the 
superlative degree of eminence; as, very good, 
exceedingly perverse, extremely cold, 
divinely fair. 

Some adjectives in the positive form, have a 
superlative signification, and do not properly 
admit of comparison ; as, chief, round, square, 
spherical, rectangidar, perpendicular, ex- 
treme, perfect, right, true, correct, vast, 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



immense, ceaseless, infinite, boundless, un- 
limited, endless, unparalleled, universal, 
supreme, omnipotent, all-wise, eternal, etc. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

More and most form the comparative and 
superlative degree by increasing the positive ; 
and less and least, by diminishing it. 

Comparison hy increasing the positive. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


High, 


higher, 


highest. 


Great, 


greater, 


greatest. 


Wise, 


wiser, 


wisest. 


Rude, 


ruder. 


rudest. 


Holy, 


more holy, 


most holy. 


Frugal, 


more frugal, 


most frugal. 


Honorable, 


more honorable, 


most honorable 


Amiable, 


more amiable, 


most amiable. 


Comparison by diminishing 


the positive. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Wise, 


less wise, 


least wise. 


Rude, 


less rude, 


least rude. 


Holy, 


less holy, 


least holy. 


Frugal, 


less frugal, 


least frugal. 


Honorable, 


less honorable, 


least honorable. 


Amiable, 


less amiable, 


least amiable. 



When participles express the qualities of 
nouns without conveying any idea of time, 
they are called participial adjectives; as, A 
reading community; an oppressed people. 



ADJECTIVES. 101 

An adjective placed without a noun, and 
preceded by the, becomes a noun in significa- 
tion ; as, The good will be rewarded ; The bad 
will be punished. 

Nouns when used to qualify other nouns, 
become adjectives ; as, A steel pen, a silver 
spoon, a gold watch. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Numeral Adjectives are of two kinds ; Car- 
dinal and Ordinal. 

The Cardinal Adjectives are used in count- 
ing ; as, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, 
eight, nine, ten, etc. 

The Ordinals are used in numbering ; as, 
first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, 
seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, etc 

Note* — Few, many, and several, always 
relate to an indefinite number, and are by some 
grammarians called indefinite numerals. 

DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

The Definitive or Specifying Adjectives 
may be divided into three classes ; the Dis- 
tributive, the Demonstrative, and the In- 
definite. 

The Distributive Adjectives relate to the 
persons or things which make up a number, 
earh taken separately. They are each, every, 
either, and sometimes neither y as, Each man 
should perform iis duty; Every person should 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

consider his latter end ; I do not speak to 
either of them ; Neither of them is present. 

The Demonstrative Adjectives are those 
which precisely point out the persons or things 
to which they relate ; as, This man will ac- 
company me; That book is well bound; 
These men will accompany me ; Those books 
are well bound. 

That is sometimes used as a relative pro- 
noun, sometimes as a demonstrative adjec- 
tive, and sometimes as a conjunction. It is a 
relative pronoun when it relates to an ante- 
cedent ; as, The time that is past, will never 
return. 

It is a demonstrative adjective when it 
definitely points out the person or thing to 
which it relates ; as, Do you see that man ? 
Did you plant that tree ? 

It is a conjunction when it denotes a conse- 
quence or a conclusion ; as, He was so vain, 
that he was universally despised ; She said 
that she was in trouble ; Study the Scriptures 
that you may be wise unto salvation. 

Note. — You, former, and latter, are by 
some authors classed with the demonstrative 
adjectives. 

The Indefinite Adjectives are those which 
express their subjects indefinitely. They are, 
same, any, one, all, such, another, both, 
some, other. 

Obs* 1. The definitive adjectives are by some 



ADJECTIVES. 103 

authors improperly denominated Adjective 
Pronouns* Pronouns stand for nouns, and 
never belong to them ; Adjectives belong to 
nouns, and never stand for them ; hence, the 
phrase Adjective Pronouns, is an absurdity. 

Obs. 2. The words a or an and the, are 
reckoned by some grammarians a separate part 
of speech, and receive the common name of 
Article; a or an being called the indefinite, 
and the the definite article; but, as they in 
all respects come under the definition of the 
adjective, it is unnecessary, as well as improp- 
er, to rank them as a class by themselves. 

A becomes an before a vowel or a silent h; 
as, An oyster, an hour. 

A or an generally limits the noun to one of 
a kind, but to no particular one ; as A man, a 
bird, an acorn. This adjective is used be- 
fore collective nouns ; as, A host, an army. 

It may be placed before plural nouns when 
they are preceded by the adjectives, few, 
great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, 
million; as, A few trees, a great many men, 
a dozen apjdles, a hundred looks, a thou- 
sand houses, a million dollars. 

The adjective the refers to a particular noun, 
and points it out in a definite manner ; as, The 
man, the boy, the city. 

It belongs to nouns in both numbers ; as, 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The river j the rivers, the mountain, the moun- 
tains. 

MODELS FOR PARSING ADJECTIVES. 

The words in Italics are parsed. 

We should shun profane company. 

Model 1. Profane is an adjective in the 
positive degree of comparison ; positive, pro- 
fane, comparative, more profane or less pro- 
fane, superlative most profane or least profane, 
and belongs to company, according to Rule 22. 
Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns ex- 
pressed or understood. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing profane. 

Profane is an adjective, because it is a word 
added to a noun to express its quality ; it is in 
the positive degree of comparison, because it 
expresses the quality of a noun, without any 
increase or diminution. 

THE CARDINAL NUMERAL ADJECTIVE. 

I hwejive apples. 

Model 2. Five is a cardinal numeral adjec- 
tive implying plurality, and belongs to apples 
in the plural number; according to Rule 21. 
Adjectives implying plurality, belong to nouns 
in the plural number. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing five. 

, Five is an adjective, because it is a word 



ADJECTIVES. 105 

added to a noun to define the extent of its 
meaning ; it is a cardinal numeral, because 
used in counting ; it implies plurality, because 
it conveys the idea of more than one object. 

THE ORDINAL NUMERAL ADJECTIVE. 

I am reading the tenth chapter of Jeremiah. 
Model 3. Tenth is an ordinal numeral ad- 
jective, and belongs to chapter / according to 
Rule 22, Adjectives belong to nouns or pro- 
nouns expressed or understood. 

Reasons for the positions token in parsing tenth. 

Tenth is an adjective, because it is a word 
added to a noun to define the extent of its 
meaning ; it is an ordinal numeral, because it 
is used in numbering. 

AN ADJECTIVE DENOTING UNITY. 

Every hour should be improved. 
Model 4. Every is a distributive adjective 
denoting unity, and belongs to hour in the 
singular number, according to Rule 23. Ad- 
jectives denoting unity, belong to nouns in the 
singular number only. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing every. 

Every is an adjective, because it is a word 
added to a noun to define the extent of its 
meaning ; it is distributive, because it belongs 
to that class of adjectives which relate to the 
persons or things that make up a number, each 
10 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

taken separately ; it denotes unity, because it 
conveys the idea of one object only. 

AN ADJECTIVE IMPLYING PLURALITY. 

Those men have returned. 
Model 5. Those is a demonstrative adjective 
implying plurality, and belongs to men in the 
plural number; according to Rule 24. Ad- 
jectives implying plurality, belong to nouns in 
the plural number. 

Feasons for the positions taken in parsing those. 

Those is an adjective, because it is a word 
added to a noun to define the extent of its 
meaning; demonstrative, because it precisely 
points out the persons to which it relates ; it 
implies plurality, because it conveys the idea 
of more than one object. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Lesson 1. — Parsing. 

Italy has a pleasant climate. Platina is heavier 
than gold. The Amazon is the largest river in the 
world. A good person has a tender concern for the 
happiness of others. Deceit discovers a little mind. 
A contented mind is an inestimable treasure. It is 
a great blessing to have pious and virtuous parents. 
"When blessed with health and prosperity, cultivate 
a humble and compassionate disposition; think of the 
distresses of human life ; of the solitary cottage, the 
dying parent, and the weeping orphan. They who 
are accustomed to view their companions in the most 
favorable light, are like persons who dwell amidst 
those beautiful scenes of nature, on which the eye 



ADJECTIVES. 107 

rests with pleasure. Suspicious persons resemble the 
traveler in the wilderness, who sees no objects around 
him, but what are either dreary or terrible. 

Lesson 2. — Parsing. 

Each of his brothers is in good health. Every 
man is accountable to his Creator. Either of these 
pens is worth three dollars. Neither of these boys 
can write. This gentleman will conduct you to the 
hotel. That lady plays on the melodeon. These 
books were purchased in Boston. Those flowers are 
very beautiful. Some persons render themselves 
very disagreeable by the use of tobacco. Can any 
philanthropist oppose the cause of temperance? One 
of the prisoners has escaped. My brother has pur- 
chased another farm. I have now heard the other 
side of the question. Such arguments prove nothing. 
Each officer who attended the king in his expedition, 
was liberally rewarded. That gentleness which is 
the characteristic of a good man, has like every other 
virtue, its seat in the heart. 

Lesson 3. — Parsing. 
A diamond will cut glass. An idea is an imige 
of the mind. The moon borrows her light from the 
sun. The north star has olten been the traveler's 
guide. The earth revolves round the sun. The 
English language has been styled the language of 
liberty. Methuselah was an antediluvian ; he lived 
nine hundred and sixty-nine years. A hundred men 
will sometimes chase a thousand. Art thou poor? — 
Show thyself active and industrious, peaceable and 
contented. Art thou wealthy ? — Show thyself benefi- 
cent and charitable, condescending and humane. "A 
just relish of what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and 
ornamental, in writing or painting, in architecture 
or gardening, is a fine preparation for the same just 
relish of these qualities in character and behavior." — 
Karnes, 



108 ENGLISH GBAMMAK. 



OF ADVERBS. 



Adverbs are words used to modify the sense 
of verbs, participles, adjectives, and other 
adverbs; as, Malvina walks gracefully ; I 
saw a man riding slowly ; Ossian was a very 
sublime poet ; The lady reads too fast. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

1. Of manner or quality ; as, Sloivly, 
wisely, foolishly, faithfully, intensely, re- 
cently, justly, unjustly, fluently, etc. Ad- 
verbs of quality are very numerous ; and they 
are usually formed by adding ly to an adjective, 
or changing le into ly ; as, Fine, finely j able, 
ably ; tame, tamely ; sensible, sensibly. 

2. Of time ; as, JVoio, yet, to-day, present- 
ly, instantly, immediately, already, yester- 
day, lately, recently, anciently, heretofore, 
hitherto, since, ago, erewidle; to-morrow, 
hereafter, henceforth, by-and-by, soon, ere- 
long ; when, then, before, after, while or 
tvhilst, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, 
late; always, ever, never, aye, eternally, 
perpetually, continually, often, oft, again, 
occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, 
rarely, now-and,-then, daily, iveeMy, month- 
ly, yearly, once, twice, thrice or three- 
times, etc. 

3. Of place ; a?, Here, where, there, yon- 
der, above, below, about, around, some- 
where, anywhere, . elsewhere, everywhere, 



ADVERBS. 109 

nowhere, wherever, within, without, here- 
about, thereabout, whereabout y whence, 
hence, thence, out, away, etc. 

4. Of direction ; as, Hither, hitherivard, 
thither, thitherward, whither, whitherward, 
upward, downward, backward, forward, 
hearemcard, homeward, etc. 

5. Of uncertainty; as, Perhaps, perchance, 
peradventure, etc. 

6. Of affirmation ; as, Yea, yes, verily, 
surely, undoubtedly, truly y indeed, certain- 
ly, doubtless, etc. 

7. Of negation ; as, JYo, nay, not, nowise. 

8. Of comparison ; as, More, most, less, 
least; well, better, best; as, so, thus, very, 
rather, exceedingly, extremely, almost, 
nearly. 

9. Of interrogation ; as, Why, when, how, 
where, wherefore, ichither, whence. 

1 0. Of number ; as, First, secondly, third- 
ly, fourthly, fifthly, sixthly, etc. 

11. Of quantity; as, Much, enough, little, 
abundantly, sufficiently. 

Some words partake both of the nature of 
conjunctions and adverbs, and are called con- 
junctive adverbs. 

A conjunctive adverb connects two ptrts of 
a sentence, and usually qualifies ,a word in each 
part so connected ; as, My iriend had cone 
before the mail arrived. 

The conjunctive adverbs are, since, where, 



110 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

before, ere, after, till, until, as, ivlien, while, 
and a few others. 

The adverbs there, now, and well, are often 
used as expletives ; as, There is a man on the 

street ; JSToiv, I hope, you will remember your 
promise; Well, S. muel, where have you been? 
In these examples, the adverbs there, now, and 
well, can not properly be said to qualify any 
word, and may be parsed as indepjendent 
adverbs. 

Two or more words taken together, seme- 
times perform the office of an adverb, and con- 
stitute what some grammarians call an ad- 
verbial phrase; as, On fyigh ci little, the better, 
the more, at once, (it most, in vain, in short, in 
fine, in general, at least r at length, not at all, 
by no means, in order, long ago, by and by, to 
and fro. 

Adverbs sometimes modify prepositions ; as, 
The bullet passed nearly through the board ; 
The boy ran almost to the bridge. 

Some adverbs, like adjecives, admit of com- 
parison ; as,-/Su0ft, sooner, soonest; gracefully, 
more gracefully, most gracefully / pleasantly, 
more pleasanily, most pleasantly y sweetly, more 
sivedly, most sweetly; rapidly, more rapidly, 
most rapidly. 

Remark 1. As a large majority of adverbs 
do not ad! nit of comparison, it should not be 
mentioned in parsing, except in the case of 
those few which are varied by it. 



ADVERBS. Ill 

Remark 2. An adverb expresses briefly 
what would otherwise require several words ; as, 
Here, for in this place; Noiv, for at this time; 
Very, for in an eminent degree ; Diligently, for 
in an industrious manner; Prudently, for with 
prudence; Exceedingly \ lor to a great degree. 

MODELS FOR PARSING THE ADVERB. 

The words in Italics are parsed. 

Rosetta reads fluently. 

Model 1. Fluently is an adverb of manner, 
in the positive degree of comparison \ positive 
fluently, comparative more fluently, superlative 
most fluently, and qualifies the verb read* ; 
according to Rule 27. Adverbs qualify verbs, 
participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Fluently is an adverb, because it is a word 
used to modify the sense of a verb. 

AN ADVERB THAT DOES NOT ADMIT OF COMPARISON. 

Harriet, come here. 
Model 2. Here is an adverb of place, and 
qualifies the verb come; according to Rule 27. 
Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, 
and other adverbs. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson 1. — Parsing. 

The corn grows fast. The lady sings very sweetly. 
Robespierre, the position which you defend so vio- 
lently, is grossly absurd. We moved slowly and 



112 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

cautiously down the dark ravine. I will see him 
when he returns. Fernando was here yesterday. 
Where has he gone? I will be there before the mail 
arrives. I will wait till yon return from Washing- 
ton. I am now ready to accompany you. Yon have 
gone too far; ycu cannot return too soon. ^ k There 
was a man sent from God, whose name was John." 
" It is surprising, how quickly, and for the most 
part how correctly, we judge of character from exter- 
nal appearance." — Kamcs. 

Lesson 2. — Parsing. 

"Rhetoric, or oratory, is the art of speaking justly, 
methodically, floridly, and copiously, upon any sub- 
ject, in order to touch the passions, and to persuade." 

11 The members of a period connected by proper 
copulatives, glide smoothly and gently along, and 
are a proof of sedateness and leisure in the speaker." 

11 The Roman women, once voluntarily contributed 
their most precious jewels to save the city." 

<k Did men always think clearly, and were they at 
the same time fully masters of the language in 
which they write, there would be occasion for few 
rules." 

M ]f we can discern particularly and precisely what 
it is. which is most directly obedience or disobedience 
to the will and commands of God; what is truly, 
morally beautiful, or really and absolutely deformed ; 
the question concerning liberty, as far as it respects ■ 
ethics, or morality, will be suihciently decided."' 

Lesson 3. — Parsing. 

11 Seek not proud riches ; but such as thou mayst 
get justly, use soberly, distribute cheerfully and 
leave contentedly." 

" Sloth has frequently and justly been denominated 
the rust of the soul. The habit is easily acquired ; 
or, rather, it is a part of «)ur very nature to be in- 
dolent." 



FAETICIFLES. 113 

" That mind must be wonderfully narrow, that is 
wholly wrapped up in itself; but this is too visibly 
the character of most human minds." 

" The more closely we follow the natural order of 
any subject we may be investigating, the more satis- 
factorily and explicitly will that subject be opened to 
our understanding." 

" How many have had reason to be thankful, for 
being disappointed in designs which they earnestly 
pursued, but which, if successfully accomplished, 
they have afterwards seen would have occasioned 
their ruin ! 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Partic ple is a word so called, because it 
partakes of the nature of a verb and also of an 
adjective; as, Being, been, having been; Seeing* 
seen, having seen; Walking, waffled, having 
walked. 

Verbs have three participles ; the Imperfect, 
the Perfect, and the Compound-perfect 

The Imperfect Participle, ends in ing, and 
always expresses existence, action, or endurance 
of action, as continued or progressing ; as, 
Being, walking, being seen. 

The Perfect Participle denotes being or 
action which is finished ; as, Been, loved, writ- 
ten, driven. 

The Compound Perfect Participle implies a 
prior completion of the being, action, or endu- 
rance of action. It is formed by placing having 
before a perfect participle; as, Having been, 
having loved, having tvritten, having driven. 

In the passive voice we place having been 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

before the perfect participle; as. Having him 

loved, having been seen, having been written. 

Participles sometimes become adjectives ; as, 
A running stream, a chitting breeze, a lav 
friend. 

The participle terminating in ing, is fre- 
quently used as a verbal or participial noun, 
having the nominative and objective cases, but 
not the possessive ; as, Walking is pleasant 
exercise ; I gave him ten dollars for doing the 
work. 

A participial noun when derived from a 
transitive verb, is transitive in its participial 
character, and often govern- an objective case; 
as, I paid the boy for bringing my trunk. 

Participial nouns sometimes take the plural 
form ; as, u The overjioivings of the Nile." 

MODEL FOR PARSING THE PARTICIPLE. 

The word in Italics is parsed. 

I saw an eagle flying. 

Model Flying is an imperfect particip'e 
derived from the veib to fly, imperfect flying, 
perfect flown, compound perfect having flown, 
and refers to eagle ; according to Rule 25, 
Participles refer to nouns or pronouns ex- 
pressed or understood. 

Reasons for the positions taken in parsing flying. 

Flying is a participle, because it partakes 



PARTICIPLES. 115 

of the nature of a verb and also of an adjective; 
it is imperfect, because it expresses action as 
continued or progressing. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson 1. — Parsing. 

I heard the lady playing on the piano-forte. We 
have seen many a promising youth ruined by the use 
of intoxicating liquors. Isadora having recited her 
lesson, I dismissed the class. I saw the herd of 
cattle grazing on the plain. The rain having ceased, 
we pursued our journey. The vessel sunk beneath 
the rolling billows. To the infidel the Bible is a 
sealed book. 

" Error is a savage, lurking about on the twilight 
borders of the circle illuminated by truth, ready to 
rush in and take possession, the moment her lamp 
grows dim." 

" Every change in the state of things is considered 
as an effect, indicating the agency, characterizing 
the kind, and measuring the degree, of its cause." 

Lesson 2. — Parking. 

II When I see a man walking, a tree growing, or 
cattle grazing, I can not doubt that these objects are 
really what they appear to be. Nature determines 
us to rely on the veracity of our senses ; for other- 
wise they could not in any degree answer their end, 
that of laying open things existing and passing 
around us." 

'• The " science of criticism jnay be considered as a 
middle link, connecting the different parts of educa- 
tion into a regular chain." 

" Viewing man as under the influence of novelty, 
would one suspect that custom also should influence 
him ? Human nrture, diversified with many and 
variuus springs of action, is wonderful}}, and, in- 
dulging the expression, intricately constructed." 



116 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

The Conjunction is a part of speech used to 
join words or sentences together; as, Lizzie 
and her sister spell and write well ; " He rolls 
his form in the whirlwind, and hovers on the 
blast of the mountain ; " u We fought, hut the 
foe prevailed," 

Conjunctions often begin sentences after a 
full period, denoting some relation between 
sentences in the general tenor of discourse ; as, 
" Not unknown are the deeds of our fathers. 
But who shall now lead the war before the race 
of kings ? " 

There are two classes of conjunctions ; the 
Copulative and Disjunctive. 

The Copulative Conjunction denotes an ad- 
dition, a cause, or a supposition ;. as, Emma 
can read and write ; " Here will I dwell, for 
I have desired it ; " u I will go if he will ac- 
company me." 

The Disjunctive Conjunction denotes oppo- 
sition of meaning ; as, Alice can read, hut she 
can not write ; " Though he was frequently 
reproved, yet he did not reform." 

LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

The following are the principal conjunc- 
tions : 

1. Copulative; And, if, that, hoth, then, 
since, for, hecause, therefore, wherefore. 

2. Disjunctive; But, or, nor, than, lest, 



CONJUNCTIONS. 117 

though, although) unless, either, neither, yet, 
7iotwithstanding. 

Both is sometimes used as a conjunction, 
and sometimes as an adjective. Then may be 
used either as a conjunction, or an adverb. 
For may be either a conjunction or a prepo- 
sition. Since is sometimes a conjunction, and 
sometimes an adverb. 

Some conjunctions are followed by corre- 
sponding conjunctions ; as, Though, — yet; 
" Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he 
bee me poor." Neither, — nor; "Neither 
he nor 1 am able to compass it" 

MODEL FOR PARSING CONJUNCTIONS. 

The word in Italics is parsed. 

Teachers teach, and pupils learn. 

Model And is a copulative conjunction, 
and connects sentences; according to Rule 28. 
Conjunctions usually connect words or sen- 
tences. 

And is a conjunction, because it is a word 
used to connect sentences. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesion 1. — Parsing. 

Figs and oranges grow in warm climates. Jefferson 
and Adams were eminent statesmen. If you go to 
Baltimore, I will accompany you. Solomon declares 
emphatically, that all is vanity and vexation of spirit. 



118 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

Albert understands how to manage both public and 
private concerns. Let me alone, for I will weep yet 
longer. I respect him, because he is honest. He 
said he would do the work ; but he did not. That 
boy regards neither threats nor promises. Either 
Emiline or Clarissa will visit us to-day. Grammar 
is a more useful science than Music. Watch ye and 
pray, lest ye enter into temptation. Though he 
slay me, yet will I trust in him. I can not return 
with you, unless you wait till I finish this business. 

u Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a 
ready man ; and writing, an exact man. Therefore, 
if a man write little, he needs a great memory ; if he 
converse little, he wants a present wit; and, if he 
read little, he ought to have much cunning, that he 
may seem to know what he does not." — Lord Bacon. 

Lesson 2. — Parsing. 

" Common reports, if ridiculous rather than dan- 
gerous, are best refuted by neglect." 

u Men are generally permitted to publish books, 
and contradict others, and even themselves, as they 
please, with as little danger of being confuted, as of 
being understood." 

" We see the material universe in motion ; but 
matter is inert ; and, so far as we know, nothing can 
move it but mind ; therefore God is a spirit. We do 
not mean that his nature is the same as that of our 
soul ; for it is infinitely more excellent. But we 
mean, that he possesses intelligence and active power 
in supreme perfection ; and, as these qualities do not 
belong to matter, which is neither active nor intelli- 
gent, we mast refer them to that which is not matter, 
but mind." 

" No man is so foolish, but that he may give good 
counsel at a time ; no man so wise, but he may err, 
ii he take no counsel but his own." 



PREPOSITIONS- 119 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



Prepositions are used to connect words, 
and to show the relation between them ; as, 
He went from Boston to Washington ; Mary 
writes with a pen ; The book lies on the table j 
The papyrus grows in Egypt. 

We call this class of words Prepositions, 
because they generally precede the nouns or 
the pronouns which they govern. 

Every preposition must govern an objective 
case ; as, Come to me; He is beyond the 
Ohio. 

The same word may be a preposition in one 
construction, and an adverb in another ; as, 
The tree stands before the door ; He paid me 
before the money was due. In the first ex- 
ample, the word before is a preposition; in 
the second, it is an adverb. 

Every preposition must have both an ante- 
cedent and a subsequent term of relation ; as, 
I sent a letter to my brother. The antece- 
dent term of relation may be a noun, pronoun, 
verb, participle, or adjective ; as, Give the 
apple to Augusta; I will introduce you to 
the teacher ; u Christ was crucified between 
two thieves;" I saw a boy running on the 
street; We should be faithful to our friends. 
The noun or pronoun governed by a preposi- 
tion, is always its subsequent term of relation; 
as, Pears grow on trees; Mecca ism Arabia. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The relations which prepositions express are 
various. 

The following are the principal prepositional 
relations : 

1. The Possessive relation; as, This book 
is the property of the teacher. 

2. The Local relation; as, Anthony stands 
on the floor. 

3. The Instrumental relation; as, Arthur 
cuts grass with a scythe. 

4 The Causative relation; as, Bernard is 
sick of fever. 

5. The Mutual relation; as, Edgar* walks 
with his friend. 

6. The Separate relation; as, Edgar walks 
without his friend. 

7. The Generic relation; as, I saw a flock 
of sheep. 

The following is a list of the principal prepo- 
sitions : 



A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



About 


Across 


Along 


Above 


After 


Amid 


According to 


Against 


Amidst 


At 


Concerning 


Among 


Athwart 


Down 


Amongst 


Before 


During 


Around 


Behind 


For 


Off 


Below 


From 


On 


Beneath 


In 


Over 


Beside 


Into 


Out of 


Besides 


Instead of 


Past 



! 





PREPOSITIONS. 


Between 


Notwithstanding 


Regarding 


Betwixt 


Near 


Respecting 


Beyond 


Nigh 


Round 


By 


Of 


Since 


Through 


Toward 


Upon 


Throughout 


Under 


With 


Till 


Underneath 


Within 


To 


Unto 


Without 


Touching 


Up 





121 



MODEL FOR PARSING THE PREPOSI- 
TION. 

The word in Italics is parsed. 

Diophantus was the reputed inventor of Al- 
gebra. 

Model. — Of is a preposition, and shows the 
relation between inventor and algebra ; accor- 
ding to Rule 32. Prepositions show the rela- 
tion between their antecedents and the nouns 
or pronouns which they govern. 

Of is a preposition, because it is a word 
used to connect words, and to show the rela- 
tion between them. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson 1. — Parsing. 

M It is interesting to notice how some minds seem 
almost to create themselves, springing up under every 
disadvantage, and working their solitary, but irresist- 
ible way through a thousand obstacles. Nature 
seems to delight in disappointing the assiduities of 

li 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

art, with which it would rear legitimate dullness to 
maturity, and to glory in the vigor and luxuriance of 
her chance productions. She scatters the seeds of 
genius to the winds, and though some may perish 
among the stony places of the world, and some be 
choked by the thorns and brambles of early adver- 
sity, yet, others will now and then strike root even in 
the clefts of the rock, struggle bravely up into sun- 
shine, and spread over their sterile birth-place all 
the beauties of vegetation." — Irving. 



Lesson 2. — Parsing. 

"There is a charm connected with mountains, so 
powerful, that the merest mention of them, the mer- 
est sketch of their magnificent features kindles the 
imagination, and carries the spirit at once" into the 
bosom of the"r enchanted regions. How the mind is 
filled with their vast solitude ! How the inward eye 
is fixed on their silent, their sublime, their everlast- 
ing peaks. How our heart bounds to the music of 
their solitary cries — to the tinkle of their gushing 
rills, to the sound of their cataracts. How inspirit- 
ing are the odors that breathe from the up-land turf, 
from the rock-hung flower, from the hoary and sol- 
emn pine ) how beautiful are those lights and shad- 
ows thrown abroad, and that fine transparent haze 
which is diffused over the valleys and lower slopes, 
as over a vast, inimitable picture." — HowitU 



Lesson 3. — Parsing. 

"It has been discovered, at length, what, indeed, 
was always sufficiently obvious, that a boy needs not 
to be kept at school eight or ten years, to learn to 
read his primer, write his name, cipher to the Rule of 
Three, and mate books and learning for the rest of 



INTERJECTIONS. ] 23 

his life. It has been discovered, that; in three or 
four years, a boy may be taught a hundred fold more, 
by skillful teachers, in a skillful way, than their fa- 
thers dreamed of learning at all. This is the grand- 
est discovery of our age. It will do more to melior- 
ate the moral, physical, and political condition of 
mankind, than all other means ever yet devised.' ' 
— Lindsey. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are words used to express sud- 
den emotion, or strong excitement of the mind ; 
as, u Go with thy rustling wind, breeze ! sigh 
on Malvina's tomb." " These were delightful 
days, but, alas ! they are no more." 

Pure interjections are nothing more than 
mere instinctive sounds of the voice, produced 
by some excitement of the mind. They are 
but few in number, and scarcely deserve a 
classification in written language. 

The free use of interjections in ordinary 
conversation, generally indicates thoughtless- 
ness and imbecility of intellect. 

Any word may become an interjection when 
used with emotion ; as, strange ! astonishing ! 
shocking ! 

A detached phrase indicating strong feeling, 
becomes an interjection; as, ungrateful icretch ! 

The following list contains the principal in- 
terjections : 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away ! aha ! begone ! hark ! 



124 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

ho! ha! he! hail! hal^o ! hum! hush! huzza! hist! 
hey-day ! Lo ! I oh ! strange ! brave ! pshaw ! 
see ! well-a-day ! etc. 

MODEL FOE PARSING THE INTERJECTION. 

The word in Italics is parsed. 

" They mourned over him, s-iying, alas my 
brother !" 

Model. Alas is an inteijection, and is used 
to express sudden emotion, or strong excite- 
ment of the mind ; it has no dependence on 
other words in construction, according to Ru *$ 
33. Interjections have no dependence on other 
words in construction. 

Alas is an interjection, because it is used to 
express sudden emotion, or strong excitement 
of the mind. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Lesson 1. — Parsing. 

u The king was much moved, and went up to the 
chamber over the gate, and wept: and as he went, 
thus he said, my son Absalom ! my son, my sou 
Absalom ! would God I had died for thee, Absa- 
lom, my son, my son !" — Bible. 

u wretched prince ! Oh cruel reverse of fortune ! 
Oh father Micipsa ! is this the consequence of thy 
generosity ; that lie, whom thy goodness raised to an 
equality with thy own children, should be the mur- 
derer of thy children?" — Salluzt. 



ANALYTICAL. EXEECISES. 125 

"Oli murdered, butchered brother ! Oh dearest to 
iny heart — now gone forever from my sight ! — but 
•why should I lament his death ? He is, indeed, de- 
prived of the blessed light of heaven, of life, and 
kingdom, at once, by the very person who ought to 
have been the first to hazard his own life, in defence 
of any one of Micipsa's family. 1 ' — Id. 

Lesson 2. — Parsing. 

"0 thou that dwellest afar, surrounded, like a rock 
with thy waves ! come to the feast of the king, and 
pass the day in rest. To-morrow let us fight, O 
Swaran, and break the echoing shields." 

" My heart smote me the moment he shut the door. 
— Pshaw ! said I, with an air of carelessness, three 
several times. But it would not do : — every ungra- 
cious syllable I had uttered, crowded back upon my 
imagination." 

"Alas ! poor bankrupt, says he, thou hast been 
plucked too, like me ; but yet not so basely." 

"Alas ! alas ! the page o-' history is but a sad one ; 
and the Stuarts and the Cromwells. the round-heads 
and the cavaliers, the pennons and the drums, are but 
part and parcel of the same dust — the dust we, who 
are made of dust animated for a time by a living 
spirit, now tread upon !" 

"Oh, the grave ! — the grave ! — It buries every 
error — covers every defect — extinguishes every re- 
sentment ! From its peaceful bosom spring none 
but fond regrets and tender recollections." 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson 1.— -Parsing. 

Alonzo writes an elegant hand. The letter was 
written by Alonzo. He has been laboring in the 
field. Your brother had gone to New York before 
your letter came to this office. The wicked shall 
perish. Narcissa will visit us to morrow. I will 
have seen your brother before you return from 
Washington. 

If he come, I will see him. If he did the work, 
he must be rewarded. If you have finished your 
business, we will return. If you had written to me, 
I would have given you the necessary information. 
If my father will go to Philadelphia, I must accom- 
pany him. Unless you shall have finished the work 
before Charles returns, he will dismiss you from his 
service. 

The lady can analyze a sentence. Pupils should 
study their lessons well. They may have deserved 
censure. Ladies, you should have prepared your 
lessons better. 

Anna, bring me a pen. Boys, study your lessons. 
Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

We ought to obey God's commandments. They 
ought to have returned sooner. 



Lesson 2. — Parsing. 

Man is mortal. I saw the tree fall. Let him 
read. He died a Christian. To lie is despicable. 
To do nothing, is to serve the devil. To die a mar- 
tyr for the truth, is glorious. To confess the truth, 
I was in fault. The well is forty feet deep. The 
house is worth five thousand dollars. That man is 
thirty years old. 

u The higher a bird flies, the more out of danger 



ANALYTICAL EXEKCISES. 127 

he is ; and the higher a Christian soars above the 
world, the safer are his comforts." — Sjparke. 

" The year before, he had so used the matter, that 
what by force, what by policy, he had taken from the 
Christians above thirty small castles. — Knolles. 

"Wo worth the chase, wo worth the day, 
That cost thy life, my gallant gray I" — Scott 

" Me thought, and phrase severely sifting out 
The whole idea, grant, uttering as 'tis 
The essential truth — time gone, the righteous saved, 
The wicked damned, and providence approved." 

Pollok. 



Lesson 3. — Parsing. 

11 Te noble few ! who here unbending stand 

Beneath life's pressure, yet bear up awhile, 

And what your bounded view, which only saw 

A little part, deemed evil, is no more : 

The storms of wint'ry time will quickly pass, 

And one unbounded spring encircle all." — Thomson. 

u My eye unscale ; me what is substance teach, 
And shadow what, while I of things to come, 
As past, rehearsing, sing the Course of Time, 
The second birth, and final doom of man." — Pollok. 

" Virtue in me was ripe — T speak not this 
In boast : for what I am to God I owe, 
Entirely owe, and of myself am naught." — Id. 

"At the destined hour, 
By the loud trumpet summoned to the charge, 
See all the formidable sons of fire, 
Eruptions, earthquakes, comets, lightnings, play 
Their various engines ; all at once disgorge 
Their bl- zing magazines: and take by storm 
This poor terrestrial eitadel of man." — Young. 



128 ENGLISH GEAMMAK, 

Lesson 4. — Parsing. 

"One I remarked 
Attentively ; but now shall I describe 
What naught resembles else my eye hath seen ? 
Of worm or serpent kind it something looked, 
But monstrous, with a thousand snaky heads, 
Eyed each with double orbs of glaring wrath ; 
And with as many tails, that twisted out 
In horrid revolution, tipped with stings ; 
And all its mouths, that wide and darkly gaped, 
And breathed most poisonous breath, had each a sting, 
Forked, and long, and venomous, and sharp j 
And in its writhings infinite, it grasped 
Malignantly what seemed a heart, swollen, black, 
And quivering with torture most intense ; 
And still the heart, with anguish throbbing high, 
Made effort to escape, but could not ; for 
Howe'er it turned, and oft it vainly turned, 
These complicated foldings held it fast." — Pollok. 



Lesson 5. — Parsing. 

"Above, below, in Ocean, Earth, and Sky, 

Thy fairy worlds, Imagination, lie, 

And Hope attends, companion of the way, 

Thy dream by night, thy visions of the day ! 

In yonder pensile orb, and every sphere, 

That gems the starry girdle of the year ! 

In those unmeasured worlds, she bids thee tell, 

Pure from their God, created millions dwell, 

Whose names and natures, unrevealed below, 

We yet shall learn, and wonder as we know ; 

For, as Iona's Saint, a giant form, 

Throned on her towers, conversing with the storm, 

(When o'er each Runic altar, weed-entwined, 

The vesper-clock tolls mournful to the wind,) 

Counts every wave-worn isle, and mountain hoar 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 129 

From Kilda to the green lerne's shore ; 
So, when thy pure and renovated mind 
This perishable dust hath left behind, 
Thy seraph eye shall count the starry train, 
Like distant isles embosomed in the main ; 
Rapt to the shrine where motion first began, 
And light and life in mingling torrent ran, 
From whence each bright rotundity was hurled, 
The throne of God — the center of the world!" 

Camphell. 

Lesson 6. — Parsing. 

" Let no presuming impious railer tax 

Creative wisdom ; as if aught was formed 

In vain, or not for admirable ends. 

Shall little, haughty ignorance pronounce 

His works unwise, of which the smallest part 

Exceeds the narrow vision of her mind ? 

As if, upon a full-proportioned dome, 

On swelling columns heaved, the pride of art ! 

A critic-fly, whose feeble ray scarce spreads 

An inch around, with blind presumption bold, 

Should dare to tax the structure of the whole." 

Thomson. 

" In pride, in reasoning pride, our error lies ; 
All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. 
Pride still is aiming at the blest abodes ; 
Men would be angels, angels would be gods. 
Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, 
Aspiring to be angels, men rebel," — Pope. 



Lesson 7. — Parsing. 

t{ Lo ! now the ways of heaven's eternal King 

To man are open ! 

Review them and adore ! Hear the loud voice 

12 



130 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

Of Wisdom sounding in her works ! 'Attend, 
Ye sons of men ! ye children of the dust, 
Be wise ! Lo ! I was present, when the Sire 
Of heaven pronounced his fiat ; when his eye 
Glanced through the gulf of darkness, and his hand 
Fashioned the rising universe ; I saw, 
O'er the fair lawns, the heaving mountains raise 
Their pine-clad spires ; and down the shaggy cliff 
I gave the rill to murmur. The rough mounds 
That bound the mad'ning deep ; the storm that roars 
Along the desert : the volcano fraught 
With burning brimstone^; I prescribe their ends.' " 

Ogilvie. 



« 



Lesson 8. — Parsing. 
w When coldness wraps this suffering clay, 



; 



Ah ! whither strays the immortal mind ? 
It cannot die, it cannot stay, 

But leaves its darkened dust behind. 
Then, unembodied, doth it terace 

By steps each planet's heavenly way ? 
Or fill at once the realms of space, 

A thing of eyes, that all survey ? 

Eternal, boundless, undecayed, 

A thought unseen, but seeing all, 
All, all, in earth, or skies displayed, 

Shall it survey, shall it recall : 
Each fainter trace that memory holds 

So darkly of departed years, 
In one broad glance the soul beholds, 

And all, that was, at once appears." — Byron. 

Lesson 9. — Parsing. 

"Hail, holy light ! offspring of heaven first born ! 
Or of the Eternal, co-eternal beam I 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 131 

May I express thee unblamed ! since God is light, 

And never, but in unapproached light 

Dwelt from eternity — dwelt then in thee, 

Bright effluence of bright essence increate. 

Or nearest thou rather, pure ethereal stream, 

Whose fountain who shall tell ? Before the sun, 

Before the heavens thou wert, and at the voice 

Of God, as with a mantle didst invest 

The rising world of waters dark and deep, 

Won from the void and formless infinite." — Milton, 



Lesson 10. — Parsing. 

"The pall was settled. He who slept beneath 

Was straighten 'd for the grave ; and as the folds 

Sunk to the still proportions, they betrayed 

The matchless symmetry of Absalom. 

His hair was yet unshorn, and silken curls 

Were floating round the tassels as they swayed 

To the admitted air, as glossy now 

As when, in hours of gentle dalliance, bathing 

The snowy fingers of Judea's daughters. 

His helm was at his feet ; his banner, soiled 

With trailing through Jerusalem, was laid, 

Reversed, beside him ; and the jeweled hilt, 

Whose diamonds lit the passage of his blade, 

Rested, like mockery, on his covered brow."— Willis. 



Lesson 11. — Parsing. 

" Inhabitants of Earth, to whom is given 
The gracious ways of Providence to learn, 
Receive my sayings with a steadfast ear — 
Know then, the sovereign Spirit of the world, 
Though, self-collected from eternal time, 
Within his own deep essence he beheld 
The bounds of true felicity complete ; 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

Yet by immense benignity inclined 
To spread around him that primeval joy 
Which filled himself, he raised his plastic arm, 
And sounded through the hollow depth of space 
The strong, creative mandate. — Aktnside. 

Lesson 12 — Parsing. 

"When the blithe son of Savoy, journeying round 
With humble wares and pipe of merry sound, 
From his green vale and sheltered cabin hies, 
And scales the Alps to visit foreign skies ; 
Though far below the forked ligtnings play, 
And at his feet the thunder dies away, 
Oft, in the saddle rudely rocked to sleep, 
While his mule browses on the dizzy steep, 
With Memory's aid, he sits at home, and sees 
His children sport beneath their native trees, 
And bends to hear their cherub voices call, 
O'er the loud fury of the torrent's fall.'' — Rogers. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 133 



SYNTAX. 



Syntax is that part of Grammar, which 
teaches the proper arrangement of words in the 
construction of sentences. Its principal parts 
are two, Concord and Government. 

In Syntax, Concord is the agreement which 
one word has with another, in gender, person, 
number, or case. 

Government is that power which one word 
has over another, in directing its mood, tense, 
or case. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, 
making complete sense; as, I respect my 
friend. " The labor of the olive shall fail, 
and the fields shalt yield no meat. 3 '' — 
Bible. 

Sentences are divided into simple and com- 
pound. A simple sentence contains one 
nominative and one finite verb ; as, God is 
great. 

A finite verb is a verb that is limited in 
person and number by a nominaive; as. He 
writes. 

An infinitive verb has no nominative, and 
in respect to person and number is without 
limitation ; as, Alfred intends to study. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A compound sentence contains two or more 
simple sentences joined together; as, Teachers 
teach , and pupils learn. 

Every sentence must contain, at least one 
nominative and a finite verb ; as, The hoy can 
read. 

If the verb in the sentence be transitive, it 
must necessarily have an objective as well as a 
nominative case ; as, Ella ivrites letters. 

A phrase consists of two or more words 
properly arranged, but not making a complete 
proposition ; as, In fact; In deference to 
your opinion. 

Adjuncts are words used in a sentence to 
restrict, illustrate, or amplify the force of other 
words; as, "The car of war comes on, like 
the flame of death I " - — Ossian. Arise, 
chief of the dark-brown shields ! " — Id. In 
the first of these examples, ivar is the adjunct 
of car, and death of fame. In the second, 
the words dark-brown and shields form an 
adjunct illustrating chief. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

RULE I. 

A noun or a pronoun is in the nominative 
case to the verb of which it is the subject; as, 
The 'Wind blows ; The tide rises; She reads 
well ; They mud have their wages. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 135 

JVote. — This rule has reference to nouns and 
pronouns only when they are the subjects of 
finite verbs. A noun or a pronoun is never iu 
the nominative case to a verb in the infinitive 
mood. We can not with propriety say, I to go, 
you to go, he to go. # 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE I. 

Obs. 1. Every nominative, when it is not 
independent, must be the subject of a finite 
verb, either expressed or understood ; as, The 
grass is green ; Who wrote this letter ? Clara ; 
that is, Clara wrote. 

Obs. 2. In English the nominative usu- 
ally precedes the verb; as, the ship sails. 
But in some cases the nominative is placed 
after the verb, or after the first auxiliary ; as, 
Hear ye; Where is my hook f May he have 
a prosperous journey; Were he present, we 
could settle the matter without difficulty; Then 
said he, I am satisfied ; There is no cause for 
alarm; " There is an hour of peaceful rest;" 
" There is a joy in grief, when peace dwells in 
the breast of the sad." — Ossian. "Here am 
Z"- — Bible. " Why art thou cast down, my 
soul? and why art thou disquieted within 
me*?" — Id. " Worthy is the Lamb that was 
slain to receive power, and riches, and wisdom, 
and strength, and honor, and glory, and bless- 
ing."— Id. 



136 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

RULE II. 

When a noun or pronoun is addressed, it is 
in the nominative case independent : as, Julius, 
where have you been ? Thou guardian of my 
youth, forsake me not; Ladies, you learn 
well. 

" Daughter of faith, awake, arise, illume 
The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb." 

Campbell. 

Note. — The name of a person or a thing 
spoken to, is always in the nominative case 
independent by address. 

RULE III. 

When a noun or a pronoun precedes a parti- 
ciple, and its case depends on no other word in 
the sentence, it is in the nominative case abso- 
lute ; as, My father being absent, the business 
was postponed ; Juliet having finished her 
studies at the seminary, we accompanied her 
home, " I being in the way, the Lord led me 
to the house of my master's brethren." — 
Bible. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE III. 

Obs. 1. After a noun or a pronoun put in 
the nominative case absolute, the participle 
being is sometimes understood ; as, m 

"They left their bones beneath unfriendly skies, 
His worthless absolution all the prize." — Cowper. 

" Alike in ignorance, his reason such, 
Whether he thinks too little or too much."— Pope. 



EULES OF SYNTAX. 137 

Iii the first of these examples, the participle 
"being is understood after absolution: His 
worthless absolution being all the prize. In 
the second example, being is understood after 
reason : Alike in ignorance, his reason being 
such. 

Obs. 2. Such expressions as, Man to man, 
Hand to hand. Steel to steel, may be parsed 
as adverbial phrases. Bat when the ellipsis is 
supplied, the first noun in each expression will 
be found in the nominative case absolute ; as, 
Man being opposed to man ; Hand being op- 
posed to hand ; Steel being opposed to steel. 

u Now, man to man, and steel to steel, 
A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel." — Scott. 

Obs. 3. The nominative case absolute is 
sometimes placed after the participle; as, U -I 
was not aware of his being a scholar; " " I 
have some recollection of his father's being a 
judge; "This our Saviour himself was pleased 
to make use of as the strongest argument of 
his being the promised Messiah." — Addison. 

Some grammarians assume that the nouns 
scholar, judge, and Messiah in these exam- 
ples, are in apposition with the possessives pre- 
ceding the participle being. If they are in the 
possessive case, what do they possess ? 

Others say that these nouns are predicate 
nominatives. But where there is a predicate 
nominative there must be a principal or leading 



138 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

nominative. What are the principal or leading 
nominatives ? 

Some assert that they are in the objective 
case ; but this cannot be true, because if we 
substitute a personal pronoun for the noun, it 
will be found that the substitute must be in the 
nominative case ; as, I have some recollection 
of its being he, not him. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Me being absent, the labor was performed by 
others. Thee being present, the boy was afraid to 
speak. Him having presented a specimen of his 
writing, we examined it. Her having finished her 
lesson, I dismissed the class. Them having arrived, 
we proceeded on our journey. Him having been sick, 
I advised him to remain at home. 

« Him destroyed, 

Or won to what may work his utter loss." — Milton. 

" The bleating sheep with my complaints agree, 
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee." 

RULE IV. 

Nouns of the third person, are often in the 
nominative case independent by exclamation ; 
as, Wretched man ! his doom is sealed. *' But, 
oh their end, their dreadful end! " Poor boy! 
he is dead. " Amazing period ! when each 
mountain-hight outburns Vesuvius." — Young. 

Ci Oh ! deep enchanting prelude to repose, 
The dawn of bliss, the twilight of our woes ! M 

Campbell. 



EULES OF SYNTAX. 139 

OBSERVATION ON RULE IV. 

The case of nouns used in mottoes, titles of 
books, and other abbreviated expressions, fre- 
quently depends on a verb or preposition un- 
derstood. In the following example, the case 
of the nouns in italics, must be determined by 
supplying words. " A horse I A horse ! my 
kingdom for a horse ! " — Shakspeare. 

KULE V. 

Nouns and pronouns are sometimes in the 
nominative case independent by pleonasm; as, 
" The soul that sinneth, it shall die." — Bible. 
" Gad, a troop shall overcome him," — Id. 
"lie that hath, to him shall be given." — Id. 
"He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." — 
Id. " Your fathers, where are they ? and the 
prophets , do they live forever?" — Id. 

u What may this mean, 



That thou, dead corse, again in complete steel 
Revisit'st thus the glimpses of the moon, 
Making night hideous ; and, toe fools of nature, 
So horribly to shake our disposition 
With thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls.' ' 

Shakspeart. 

RULE VI. 

The possessive case is governed by the name 
of the thing possessed; as, Melville 7 s book; 
Alban's apple; Their home is in heaven. 

" What numbers, once in Fortunes lap high-fed, 
Solicit the cold hand of charity ! " — Young. 



140 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

u His path shall be where streamy mountains swell 
Their shadowy grandeur o'er the narrow dell ! " 

Campbell. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VI. 

Obs. 1. When the thing possessed is obvious, 
the name is often omitted after the possessive 
case; as, -He is at Mr. JVellingto?i's, that is, 
house; He is at St. Paul's, that is, church. 

Obs. 2, When the possessor is expressed by 
two or more names, the possessive sign is, by 
some writers annexed to the last ; as, * John 
the Baptist's head; " In Henry the Eighth's 
time." The propriety of the use of the pos- 
sessive sign in the two preceding examples, is 
questionable. The phrases would be much bet- 
ter, thus ; The heid of John the Baptist ; In 
the time of Henry the Eighth. 

Obs. 3. When nouns in the possessive case 
are in apposition, and follow each other in quick 
succession, the possessive sign is generally an- 
nexed to the last only; as, For David my 
servant's sake. — Bible. My friend John's 
house. 

Obs. 4. When the thing possessed is repre- 
sented as belonging to two or more individuals 
severally specified, the possessive sign should 
be repeated with each name ; as, " It was my 
father's, mother's, and uncle's opinion." 

Several possessive cases following each other 
in the same construction, with the sign ex- 



KULES OF SYNTAX. 141 

pressed, are generally inelegant; and for the 
sake of euphony they should be avoided, if 
possible, by expressing the relation of property 
by the preposition of. The example used for 
illustrating the rule, would be much more ele- 
gant, if rendered, thus ; It was the opinion of 
my father, mother, and uncle. 

Obs. 5. The possessive case generally comes 
immediately before the noun which it possesses ; 
as, Dr. Dick's Works. But to this principle 
there are some exceptions ; as, JRollin's An- 
cient History. 

Obs. 6. An adjective used without a noun, 
sometimes takes the possessive sign ; as, " The 
rich man's joys increase, the poor's decay." — 
Goldsmith. 

Obs. 7. The possessive case is frequently 
governed by participial nouns ; as, "His com- 
ing was foretold by the prophets ; " Walter's 
applying himself so closely to study during 
the past year, has injured his health. 

Obs. 8. Sometimes where the use of s would 
produce too much of the hissing sound, the 
possessive singular is marked by tfie apostrophe 
without the additional s; as, "The wrath of 
Peters' son j " " For conscience' sake. 

M Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring 
Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess, sing ! " 

Popes Homer. 

JSTote. —The omission of the additional s 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

after the apostrophe in the possessive singular, 
occurs chiefly in poetry; in prose it should 
generally be added. Instead of Pierce' Gram- 
mar, we should write Pierce's Grammar; 
instead of Moses' rod, we should write Moses's 
rod. 

FALSE SYNTAX, 

Ossians poems. Fingals sword. Alonas book. 
By Cronas mossy course, Fingal had scattered his 
foes. Our fathers had been foes ; we met by Cluthas 
winding waters. 

The princes declaration, in spite of all precautions, 
was now in every mans hands. 

The act, while it gave five years full pay to the offi- 
cers, allowed but one years pay to the privates. 

Truth, radiant goddess, sallies on my soul, 
And puts delusions dusky train to flight. 

That lady says, those oranges are her's. Our 
danger is much greater than their's* The ghosts of 
Lochlin shriek around it's steel. 

No, Orla ! our's has been the chase of the roebuck, 
and the feast of shells ; our's be the path of danger : 
our's has been the care of Oithona ; our's be the nar- 
row dwelling on the banks of Lubar. 

RULE VII. 

When nouns or pronouns are added to the 
preceding nouns or pronouns to explain them, 
they are by apposition in the same case ; as, 
"Sir Isaac Newton, a most celebrated Eng- 
lish philosopher and mathematician, and 
one of the greatest geniuses that ever appeared 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 143 

in the world, was born at Woolstrope, in Lin- 
colnshire, in 1642, and died in 1727." — Lem- 
priere. I saw Campbell the poet j " Re- 
member ye the law of Moses my servant" — 
Bible. 

Note. — In parsing cases of apposition, rule 
seventh should be applied only to the explana- 
tory nouns and pronouns. 

OBSERVATIONS ON KULE VII. 

Obs. 1. The common and the proper name 
of a thing are frequently put in apposition; as ? 
Cape Horn; Lake Superior ; The river 
Nile. 

Obs. 2. When two or more proper names 
are used to distinguish the same individual, 
they should be parsed together; as, JSFoak 
Webster y William Cullen Bryant. 

Obs. 3. When a noun or a pronoun is re- 
peated for the sake of emphasis, the latter term 
is in apposition with the former; as, "They 
have forsaken me, the Fountain of living 
waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken 
cisterns that can hold no water." — Bible. 

" The sun — earth's sun, and moon and stars, had 
ceased 
To number seasons, days, and months, and years 
To mortal man." — Pollok. 

Obs. 4. The compound personal pronouns 
are often used in apposition with nouns and 
other pronouns for the sake of emphasis ; as, 



144 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

i" myself will risk the responsibility ; You could 
have done that work yourself) They themselves 
ought to have been present. 

Obs. 5. A phrase is sometimes put in ap- * 
position with a noun ; as, "Whoever, with know- 
ledge and impartiality, examines the question, 
whether the writings of the Old Testament are 
authentic, will undoubtedly be compelled to re- 
ply in the affirmative." — Schraeder. 

Obs. 6. Nouns are frequently set in appo- 
sition to sentences ; as, "The Dutch were for- 
merly in possession of the coasting trade and 
freight of almost all other trading nations ; they 
were also the bankers for all Europe; advan- 
tages by which they have gained immense 
sums." — Zimmerman. In this example the 
noun advantages is put in apposition to the two 
first members of the sentence. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I saw Jefferson, he who wrote the Declaration of 
Independence. Robert Pollok, him that wrote the 
Course of Time, was a sublime poet. Give the books 
to Scott and Morgan, they to whom you were intro- 
duced at the Hotel. We ought to love God, he who 
created and sustains all things. 

I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited. 

They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. 

It was John, him who preached repentance. 

Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded 
Julius Cesar, is variously described by historians. 

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eter- 
nity to eternity. 



BULES OF SYNTAX. 145 

I have recently been in Washington, where I saw 
Abraham Lincoln, he who is now president. 

EULE VIIL 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case ; 
as, The boy drives the horse; Robert loves 
Helen; I respect him. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VIII. 

Obs. 1. The objective case generally fol- 
lows the governing verb ; as, I saw the man ; 
The boy shot the bird. 

Obs. 2. In poetry, the objective case some- 
times precedes the verb which governs it ; as, 

"But killing charms your lover's death contrive, 
Lest heavenly music should be heard alive." — Pope. 

"Fain would my muse the flowery treasure sing, 
And humble glories of the youthful spring." — Id. 

Obs. 3. A transitive verb is frequently fol- 
lowed by two objectives in apposition ; as, They 
proclaimed him Icing. 

"Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay 
To mould me man?" — Milton. 

Obs. 4. The verbs give, teach, tell, allow, deny, 
offer, pay, and several others are often followed 
by two objectives ; one term denoting a per- 
son, the other a thing ; as, He gave me a look; 
He taught the boy Grammar ; I told him the 
13 



146 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

truth; John allowed the man two dollars per 
day ; They denied him a seat ; The gentleman 
offered Louisa a fan ; I have paid him his tvetr 
ges. In these examples each objective term 
denoting a person, is governed by a preposi- 
tion understood. 

Obs. 5. Passive verbs are sometimes follow- 
ed by an objective case ; as, I was offered a 
dollar for my knife ; He was paid the money; 
u Pitticus was offered a large sum by the king." 
This mode of expression is evidently erroneous. 
In the examples given for illustration, /, he, 
and Pitticus are not the true subjects of the 
verbs. In the first example, I was not offered ; 
the dollar was offered to me. In the second, 
he was not paid ; the money was paid to him. 
In the third, Pitticus was not offered ; the sum 
was offered to Pitticus. 

Obs. 6. A transitive verb should not be 
followed by a preposition ; as, I will not allow 
of any such conduct. In this sentence, the 
preposition of should be expunged. 

Obs. 7. The intransitive verb grow should 
never be used transitively ; as, The farmer 
grows corn. It should be, He raises or culti- 
vates corn. 

Obs. 8. Intransitive verbs sometimes be- 
come transitive, and govern a noun of similar 
qv kindred signification to their own; as, He 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 147 

dreamed a dream ; The boy ran a race ; He 
livedo life of virtue ; They died an ignominious 
death. 

Note. — In the following sentences, verbs 
which are usually intransitive, assume a tran- 
sitive signification, and govern an objective 
case; as, "Her lips blush deeper sweets;" 
u Groves, whose rich trees wept odorous gums 
and balms" Many verbs which are marked 
transitive in our dictionaries, are often used in- 
transitively ; and hundreds that are marked 
intransitive, sometimes become transitive, and 
govern an objective c ise. Hence, the only 
safe guide for determining, the transitive or 
intransitive character of a verb, is its use in 
construction. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He that continues in sin, God will punish. He and 
they we know, but who are ye ? The Judge invited 
my friend and I to accompany him. They who he 
has most injured, *he had the greatest reason to love. 
We that were in the Hall, they entertained with mu- 
sic. She that is benevolent and pious, God will re- 
ward. Ye who were dead, hath he quickened. They 
who oppose the religion of the Bible, we should con- 
sider the worst enemies of mankind. He, who under 
all proper circumstances, has the boldness to speak 
truth, choose for your friend. 

RULE IX. 
Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, 



148 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

I walked with Edwin ; Give the pen to the 
lady; He resides in Washington; The bird 
sings on the bough; Give the book to me. 



OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IX. 



Obs. 1. After the verbs give, offer, pay, pro- 
cure, and some others, the prepositions to and 
for are often understood, and govern an objec- 
tive denoting a person; as, The teacher gave 
the boy a medal, that is, g.»ve to the boy a 
medal ; He offered me an apple, that is, offered 
to me an apple ; I paid him a hundred dollars, 
that is, paid to him a hundred dollars ; I pro- 
cured him a house, that is, procured for him a 
house. 

Obs. 2. A noun or a pronoun following like 
or unlike, is governed by the preposition to or 
unto understood ; as, Edward is like his bro- 
ther; She is unlike her mother ; u Age is dark 
and unlovely; it is like the glimmering light of 
the moon, when it shines through broken clouds, 
and the mist is on the hills." — Ossian. In 
these examples, the preposition is understood 
before the terms in italics. 

Obs. 3, Home and nouns signifying time or 
distance are generally governed by a preposi- 
tion understood ; as, He went home ; He read 
two hours ; He rode five miles ; that is, he 
went to home ; he read during two hours ; he 
rode through five miles. 






RULES OF SYNTAX. 149 

Obs. 4. Nouns of extent, value, or duration, 
are sometimes used without a governing word ; 
as, The territory is four hundred miles square ; 
The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand miles 
wide; The wall is four feet thick, and twelve 
feet high ; The horse is worth a hundred dol- 
lars; The man is forty years old. 

Obs. 5. Worth in the phrases, Wo ivorth 
the day, Wo ivorth the man, etc., is a verb 
from the Saxon weorthan, to be. The verb 
is in the imperative mood, and the nouns fol- 
lowing it are in the objective case, governed 
by the preposition to understood ; Wo be to 
the day; Wo be to the man. 

Obs. 6. When a noun or a pronoun follows 
an interjection as part of an imperfect ex- 
clamation, its case usually depends on some- 
thing understood ; as, Ah me I that is, pity 
me ? or sympathize with me. In supplying the 
ellipsis in this example, we may use either a 
verb or a preposition. Not so in the following 
exclamation ; Wo is me I Here we must supply 
a preposition ; Wo is to me. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I will divide this apple between you and I. Every 
man ought to have respect for hisself. They intend 
to share it among theirselves. Each is accountable 
for hisself. I have plenty of victuals, and, between 
you and I, something in a corner. And to poor we, 
thine enmity's most capital. The public will soon 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

discriminate between him who is the sycophant, and 
he who is the teacher. A separation must soon take 
place between our minister and I. I see there was 
some resemblance between this good man and I. It 
will do well enough for you and I. 

This life- has joys for you and I, 
And joys that riches ne'er could buy. 

RULE X. 

When collective nouns convey the idea of 
unity, they must have verbs and pronouns 
agreeing with them in the singular number ; as, 
The class is large, and it is still increasing ; 
The meeting has finished its business ;" " The 
nation is powerful ;" " The parliament is dis- 
solved;" The army is marching. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The fleet are formidable. The church have no 
power to inflict corporal punishment. The class are 
industrious and they learn rapidly. The flock, and 
not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the 
shepherd's care. The nation are so weak, that they 
cannot long maintain their independence. The meet- 
ing were respectable, and they passed several impor- 
tant resolutions. An army present a painful sight 
to a feeling mind. No society are chargeable with 
the disapproved conduct of particular members. Why 
do this generation look for greater evidence, when so 
much is already given. The court have adjourned. 

RULE XI. 

When collective nouns convey the idea of 
plurality, they must have verbs and pronouns 



EULES OF SYNTAX. 151 

agreeing with them in the plural; as, "The 
council were divided in their sentiments ;" 
" My people do not consider : they have not 
known me." — Bible. " The multitude eager- 
ly pursue pleasure, as their chief good ;" 
"The clergy began to withdraw themselves 
from the temporal courts." — Blackstone. " The 
enemy were driven from their works." — 
Mickle. " Liberty should reach every indi- 
vidual of a people ; as they all share one com- 
mon nature." — Spectator. " Let us take a 
view of the principal incidents attending the 
nobility, exclusive of their capacity as heredit- 
ary counselors of the crown." — Blackstone. 
* The commonalty are divided into several 
degrees." — Id. 

Note. — No precise rule can be given to di- 
rect, in every case, which number is to be used. 
Much regard is to be had to usage, and to the 
exact import of the aggregate names. In 
general, modern practice inclines to the use of 
the plural verb and pronoun. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XL 

Obs. 1. Some speakers and writers mistake 
sort and hind for collective nouns denoting 
plurality as, These sort are preferable to 
those sort ; These kind are better than those 
kind. These errors should be carefully avoided. 

Obs. 2. Collective nouns generally admit 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

the regular plural ; as, Army, Armies; Flock, 
Flocks; Host, Hosts. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The multitude is vain and thoughtless ; it pursues 
pleasure as its chief, good. My people doth not con- 
sider ; it hath not known me. The nobility has too 
much influence. The people rejoice in that which 
should cause sorrow. The gentry is punctilious in 
its etiquette. Mankind is appointed to live in a fu- 
ture state. In France the peasantry goes barefoot, 
and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes. The 
council was not unanimous, and it separated without 
coming to any conclusion. The committee was divi- 
ded in sentiment, and it has referred the business to 
the general meeting. The majority was disposed to 
adopt the measure. The family was all well when 
we left home yesterday. 

RULE XII. 

When two or more singular nominatives are 
taken disjunctively, they must have verbs 
agreeing with them in the singular number; as, 
Neither William nor Andrew intends to re- 
main in Cincinnati; Either Martin or his 
brother lias written this letter ; ft Ignorance 
or negligence has caused this mistake";" 
" John, James, or Joseph, intends to accom- 
pany me ;" " There is, in many minds, neither 
knowledge nor understanding." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XTI. ; 

Obs. 1. When nominatives of different per- 
sons or numbers, are taken separately, the 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 153 

verb must agree with that which is placed next 
to it, and be understood to the rest; as, " Nei- 
ther you nor I am concerned ;" " Neither he 
nor his brothers were there." 

Obs. 2. When a disjunctive comes between 
a singular and a plural nominative, the plural 
should generally be placed next to the verb; as, 
" The dice-box or his cups were his rain." 

Obs. 3. But when different forms of the 
verb are required, it is usually preferable to ex- 
press the verb, or its auxiliary with each nom- 
inative; as, "Either thou art to blame or I 
am;" Either he is the man or you are; 
Either you are the person to whom he alluded, 
or I am; Neither Benjamin has arrived nor 
have his brothers. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Neither Jane nor Elizabeth have visited me. Nei- 
ther whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry. 
Either Thomas or Calvin have done this. When 
sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, 
the sincerity of friendship is proved. Ignorance or 
negligence have caused this mistake. Neither of 
them are present. Man's happiness or misery are, 
in a great measure, put into his own hands. Either 
knowledge or virtue are preferable to riches. Either 
work or play are preferable to idleness. It must be 
confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in 
them robbery or murder. Neither precept nor dis- 
cipline are so forcible as example. Neither poverty 

14 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

nor riches were injurious to him. On these causes 
depend all the happiness or misery, which exist ammig 
men. A noun or a pronoun joined with a participle, 
constitute a nominative case absolute. Wherever 
objects were to bd n irne«I r in which sound, noise, or 
motion were concerned, the imitation by words was 
abundantly obvious. A lucky anecdote, or an en- 
livening tale relieve the folio pige. The pleasure or 
pain resulting from a train of perceptions in different 
circumstances, are a beautiful contrivance of nature 
for valuable purposes. A penitent unbeliever, or an 
impenitent believer, are characters no where to be 
fecund. 

EULE XIII. 

Two or more nominatives taken in connec- 
tion, must have verbs agreeing with them in 
the plural number ; as, Edmund and Samuel 
are in the house; Regina and Isabella have 
finished their s f udies ; Clay and Webster were 
popular statesmen. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIII. 

Obs. I. The conjunction is frequently un- 
derstood ; as 7 " Honor, justice, religion itself, 
were derided." 

Obs. 2- When the nouns 03nnected are very 
nearly related in sense, some authors have 
thought it proper to use the verb in the singu- 
lar number ; as, " Tranquillity and peace dwells 
there ;" " Nor were the young fellows so wholly 
lost to a sense of right, as pride and self-con- 
ceit has made them affect to be." — Johnson. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 155 

" Harmony and love is preferable to discord 
and hatred ;" " Their safety and welfare is 
most concerned ;" '* The discomfiture and 
slaughter was very great." These forms of 
expression conflict with one of the plainest 
principles of our language, and ought to be 
discouraged by every grammarian. 

Obs. 3. When two or more nouns connected 
by and denote the same person or thing, the 
verb should be in the singular number; as, 
" John Milton, a most illustrious English poet, 
and famous politician, was born in London, in 
1608." — Lempriere. u That great statesman 
and general is entitled to the gratitude of his 
country;" " That celebrated psalmist, that 
hero, king, priest and prophet of the Jewish 
people, was once a shepherd boy." 

Obs. 4. When two or more nominatives con- 
nected by the conjunction and, are preceded 
by distributive adjectives, the verb must be in 
the singular number ; as, " Every man, woman 
and child was numbered^ 

Fx\.LSE SYNTAX. 

Rain and snow falls from the clouds. London and 
Paris is large cities. The lady and her sister has 
arrived. Margaret, Laura, and Clementine, has gone 
to Canada. Laura and Evangeline loves play. Child- 
hood and youth passes away like a dream. Disgrace, 
poverty, and ruin, awaits the inebriate. Death, Judg- 
ment, and Eternity, is realities. Sobriety and 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

humility leads to honor. Time arid tide waits for no 
man. Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the 
golden mediocrity. What signifies the counsel and 
care of preceptors, when you think you have no need 
of assistance? The planetary system, boundless 
space, and the immense Ocean, affects the mind with 
sensations of astonishment. Patience and diligence, 
like faith, removes mountains. Humility and know- 
ledge, with poor apparel, excels pride and ignorance 
under costly attire. The inquisitive and curious is 
generally talkative. In unity consists the security 
and welfare of every society. So much ability and 
merit is seldom found. Dr. Johnson tells us, that in 
English poetry the accent and the quantity of sylla- 
bles is the same thing. The boldness, freedom, and 
variety of our blank verse, is infinitely more favor- 
able than rhyme, to all kinds of sublime poetry. 
With rational beings, nature and reason is the same 
thing. Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, 
has now perished. 



RULE XIV. 

Personal pronouns must agree with the 
nouns which they represent, in gender, person, 
and number ; as, Herodotus was an ancient 
Greek historian ; lie is called the Father of 
History ; Hypatia was a learned lady of an- 
tiquity ; She governed the Platonic school at 
Alexandria ; The rose is beautiful, but it soon 
fades. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIV. 

Obs. 1. When a pronoun refers to something 
indefinite or unknown, this rule is not strictly 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 157 

applicable ; as, " He that reproveth a scorner 
getteth to himself shame ; and lie that rebuk- 
eth a wicked man getteth himself a blot." — 
Bible. In parsing, the distinction between 
personal and relative pronouns, sJiould be 
carefully observed. 

Obs. 2. A pronoun representing two or 
more nouns connected by the conjunction and 
must be in the plural number ; as, Emma, 
Alice, and Gertrude, have finished their course 
at the seminary. 

Obs. 3. When the nouns connected by and 9 
are preceded by distributive adjectives, the 
pronoun must be in the singular number ; as, 
Every animal and every vegetable shows the 
power of its Creator. 

Obs. 4. The pronoun ice is often used by 
the speaker to represent himself; as, We are a 
plain man, and intend to speak our mind 
freely. This absurd use of the pronoun we, to 
represent a noun of the singular number, was 
probably introduced at first, by very modest 
speakers, to evade the charge of egotism. 

Obs. 5. The pronoun you, though formerly 
plural, is now applied alike to one person or^to 
more ; as, You are the man ; You are the 
men. 

Obs. 6. A pronoun standing for the name 
of an inanimate object personified, must be of 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the gender which is assumed for the noun in 
the figure ; as. Old Ocean rolls his billows 
high. 

"Dullness o'er all possessed her ancient right, 
Daughter of Chaos and eternal Night." — Pope. 

Obs. 7. The personal pronoun it often re- 
presents a phrase or a proposition ; as, You 
have ivronged me, and you must not deny it; 
u She is very handsome* and she has the 
misfortune to know it." " Surely the Lord 
is in this place, and I knew it not.'' — Bible. 

Obs. 8. The pronoun it is frequently used 
without any specific antecedent; as, It blows ; 
It rains ; It snows ; It thunders. 

" Come, and trip it as you go 

On the light fantastic toe." — Milton. 

Obs. 9. In an explanatory sentence, the 
neuter pronoun may refer to a noun or a pro- 
noun of either gender or number ; as, It is a 
man who is ringing the bell ; It is a lady that 
is walking in the garden ; It was men who did 
the work ; It was ladies that gathered these 
flowers ; It is he ; It is she; It is they. 

Obs. 10. Sometimes the pronoun it is not 
expressed, but understood ; as, May be, for it 
may be ; As appears, for as it appears ; As fol- 
lows, for as it follows. 

Obs. 11. The neuter pronoun frequently 
represents the state or condition of a person or 



RULES OF SYNTAX . 159 

of a thing ; as, u How is it with you?" "It shall 
be well with the righteous." 

FM,SE SYNTAX, 

Every man received their wages. One should not 
have too high an opinion of themselves. No person 
should consider their education complete, till they 
have studied the grammatical construction of their own 
language. If a person has any regard for their repu- 
tation, they ought to shun profane and dissolute 
company. Every man will be rewarded according to 
their works. Each of them in their turn, receive the 
benefits to which they are entitled. Every one must 
judge of their own feelings. There is none in their 
natural state righteous, no not one. His form had 
not yet lost all her original brightness. She fell to 
laughing, like one out of their right mind. As two 
thoughtless boys were trying to see which could lift 
the greatest weight with their jaws, one of them had 
several of his firm-set teeth wrenched from their 
sockets. Can any one, on their entrance into the 
world, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived? 
The mind of man cannot be long without some food 
to nourish the activity of his thoughts. Every one 
in the family should know their duty. Everybody 
has recollections which they think worthy of record- 
ing. No man ever performed their duty better than 
he. 

RULE XV. 

Relative pronouns must agree with their an- 
tecedents, in gender, person, and number ; as, 
I am the man who improved this farm ; This 
is the ring which you gave me ; " Ye that e'er 
lost an angel, pity me!" — Young. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAK- 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XV. 

Obs. 1. Relative pronouns are usually 
placed at or near the beginning of their own 
clauses ; as. There is the ma*i who accompanied 
me to Washington; Whom did you call? 
"Cease ye from man, whose breath is in his 
nostrils." — Bible. 

Obs. 2. The relative sometimes refers to an 
antecedent understood ; as, 

" He curses ichom he dreads, 
And deems it the first moment of his fall." — Young. 

In this example him understood is the ante- 
cedent of whom. He curses him whom he 
dreads. The omission of the antecedent occurs 
chiefly in poetry. 

Obs. 3. The relative pronoun is often under- 
stood ; as, That is the man I met on my way 
to Columbus ; the man whom I met ; This is 
the book I bought in Boston ; the book which 
I bought. 

Obs. 4. The pronoun who is sometimes used 
interrogatively ; as, Who did the work ? Whose 
book have you ? Whom did you see ? When 
this pronoun is used interrogatively, it does 
not relate to an antecedent. 

Obs. 5. Which and what when used in ask- 
ing questions, become interrogative adjectives ; 
as, Which horse did you ride ? What enemy 
has done this ? 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 161 

Obs. 6. Nouns and pronouns used in asking 
questions, and those employed in answering 
them, must agree in case; as, Who discovered 
America ? Columbus. In this example, who 
and Columbus agree in case; ivho is the subject 
of the verb discovered expressed, and Columbus 
is in the nominative case to discovered under- 
stood. 

Obs. 7. The relative who is applied to per- 
sons, and wMch to brutes and inanimate things ; 
as, The man who addressed the meeting spoke 
eloquently ; These are the birds which I bought 
for Clemanthe ; This is the hat which I wore to 
Baltimore. 

Obs. 8. Nouns of multitude, when they do 
not refer directly to the persons composing the 
collection, should not be represented by the 
relative who ; to say, The committees who were 
appointed, would be improper ; we should say, 
the committees which were appointed, or, the 
committees that were appointed. 

Obs. 9. When the name of a person is 
taken in an abstract sense, and does not denote 
the person, it should be represented by which, 
and not by ivho ; as, Nero, which is but another 
name for tyranny and brutality. 

Obs. 10. The relative that is often used to 
prevent the too frequent repetition of who and 
which; it may be applied either to persons or 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






to things ; as, The lady that writes ; These are 
the beautiful flowers that you gave me. 

Obs. 11. In the following cases the relative 
that is generally preferable to who or which : 

1. After the adjectives very, same and all; 
as, He is the very boy that stole my grapes ; 
He is the same man that we saw before ; " For 
all that gladdens and all that grieves, we find* 
in these divine harmonies the loud or the low 
expression." 

2. After an adjective in the superlative de- 
gree ; as, Washington was one of the purest 
patriots that the world ever saw ; " Catiline's 
followers were the most profligate that could be 
found in any city." 

3. After the relative who; as, " Who that 
has any sense of religion would have argued 
thus?" 

4. When the pronoun relates to both persons 
and things ; as, He spoke of the men, horses, 
and towns thai he had seen in Mexico. 

Obs. 12. To prevent ambiguity, the rela- 
tive should be placed as near as possible to its 
antecedent ; as, There is my friend who has 
just returned from Europe ; This is the agent 
whom I employed. The following sentence is 
ambiguous ; " He is like a beast of prey, that 
is void of compassion." Here the relative that 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 163 

may refer either to he or to least Better thus ; 
He that is void of compassion, is like a beast 
of prey. 

Obs. 13. What is sometimes improperly 
substituted for the conjunction that ; as, I do 
not know but what it will rain before night. In 
this example, that should be used instead of 
what 

Obs. 14. What is sometimes used as an 
adverb ; as, " The enemy having his country 
wasted, ivhat by himself and what by the sol- 
diers, findeth succor in no place.' , — Spenser. 
Here the meaning is, wasted partly by himself 
and partly by the soldiers. " Though I forbear, 
what am I eased ?" — Bible, that is, how much ? 
or, wherein am I eased ? 

Obs. 15. What is sometimes an interjec- 
tion; as, "What! could ye not watch with me 
one hour ?" — Bible. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Thou who has written this letter, knowest its con- 
tents. Thou who was my guide in youth, wilt not 
forsake me now. Are you the man which built this 
house ? There is the gentleman to which I sold the 
barouche. Thou who has been a witness of the fact, 
canst state it. He had one acquaintance which 
poisoned his principles. 

RULE XVI. 

The relative is in the nominative case to the 
verb, when there is no intervening nominative ; 



164 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

as, The man who addressed us, spoke 
fluently ; He who preserves us is eternal ; 
The rain which fell yesterday, has cooled the 
atmosphere ; u Let the meteor, that lights our 
fathers through the night, come with its red 
beam, to show me the way to my fallen hero." 
— Ossian. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Whom will be appointed to superintend this work ? 
The embassador whom was sent to England, has re- 
turned. If he will not hear his best friend, whom 
shall be sent to admonish him. How can we avoid 
being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offi- 
ces, have proved themselves our real friends ? This 
is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor. 
These are the men whom, you might suppose, were 
the authors of the work. If you were here, you 
would find three or four, whom you would say passed 
their time agreeably. 

RULE XVII. 

When there is an intervening nominative, 
the relative is governed by the following verb, 
or by some other word in its own member of 
the sentence ; as, He whom I love will not for- 
sake me; "That is the vice which I hate;" 
This is the Bible that my mother gave me ; 
The man to whom I gave the pen, is a steno- 
grapher ; With whom did you walk ? 

Note. — The relative pronoun precedes 
the verb which governs it. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 165 

OBSERVATION ON RULE XVII. 

The pronouns whichsoever, whatsoever, 
and the like, are sometimes elegantly divided 
by the interposition of the corresponding nouns ; 
as, " In what light soever we view him, his 
conduct will bear inspection." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The person who you introduced to me, T am in- 
formed is a Spaniard. Harold is a man who I highly 
respect. There is one of the gentlemen who I saw 
at the Crystal Palace. Who did you send the bouquet 
to? Who did you purchase this watch for? Those 
who we confide in, sometimes deceive us. Of those 
who much is given to, much will be required. Who 
did you meet in the street? Th : s is the friend who I 
sincerely esteem. To who did he give the present? 
From the character of those with who you associate, 
your own will be estimated. To who did you give 
the book ? Who did you see there ? He is a man 
who I greatly respect. They who conscience and 
virtue support, may smile at the caprices of fortune. 
Our benefactors and tators are the persons we ought 
to love, and who we ought to be grateful to. Men 
of fine talents, are not always the persons who we 
should esteem. The enemies who we have most to fear, 
are those of our own hearts. Christ did applaud the 
liberality of the poor widow, who he had seen cast- 
ing her two mites into the treasury. Who should I 
meet the other day but my old friend ! How shall 
the people know who to entrust with their property 
and their liberties? The fact is, Burke is the only 
one of all the host of brilliant contemporaries who we 
can rank as a first rate orator. 

He marks the righteous, who the shade conceals, 
Enthrones with kings, as blazing noon reveals. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XVIII. 

A verb must agree with its nominative in 
person and number; as, I see; Thou seest; 
The man sees ; We see; Ye or you see; The 
men see; They see. 

Note. — To this general rule there are no 
exceptions. Every finite verb must have a 
nominative either expressed or implied, and 
must of necessity correspond with it in person 
and number. A verb in the infinitive mood, 
has no nominative, and of course does not come 
within the range of this rule. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVIII. 

Ob<. 1. The infinitive mood, or a part of a 
sentence, is sometimes put in the nominative 
case to a verb ; as, To quarrel is disgraceful ; 
That man should revere the great Author 
of his being, is rational and self-evident. In 
all such examples as are here given, the verb 
must be of the third person singular number. 

Obs. 2. A verb in the imperative mood, 
usually agrees with the pronoun thou, ye, or 
you, understood ; as, "Forgive us our debts." — ■ 
Bible. Here forgive is in the imperative 
mood, and agrees with thou understood. 

Obs. 3. A verb in the imperative mood is 
sometimes used without reference to any defi- 
nite subject; as, " God said, Let there be light, 
and there was light." — Bible. u God said, Let 



KtJLES OF SYNTAX* 167 

there be a firmament in the midst of the 
waters, and let it divide the waters from the 
waters." — Id. 

Obs. 4. When a verb comes between two 
nominatives, it must agree with that which is 
more naturally its subject ; as, " The wages of 
sin is death" — Bible. " His meat was lo- 
custs and wild honey." — Id. * Who art 

t} W u r—m. 

Obs> 5. In conditional phrases, the sign of 
the condition is sometimes omitted, and the 
nominative placed after the auxiliary; as, Did 
he but know his danger, he would pursue a dif- 
ferent course ; for, if he did but know his dan- 
ger, etc. Had you made your request known 
at the proper time, it would have been granted; 
for, if you had made your request known at 
the proper time, etc 

Obs. (j. When an emphatieal adjective intro- 
duces a sentence, the verb frequently precedes 
the nominative ; as, " Great is the Lord, glo- 
rious are his works, and happy is the man 
who has an interest in his favor." 

Obs. 7. An adjunct of the nominative 
should never be taken as a part of the subject 
of a verb. Hence the following sentence is 
improper; Thejfarm, with all its appurte- 
nances, were sold. It should be, the farm, 
with all its appurtenances, wets sold. 

Obs. 8 In the answer to a question the verb 
is generally omitted ; as, Who brought these 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

apples? Dora. Who invented the lightning- 
rod ? Benjamin Franklin. 

Obs. 9. In poetry, the verb is sometimes 
used without a nominative, in interrogative 
sentences, where the omission would be im- 
proper in prose ; as, '• Lives there who loves 
his pain?" — Milton. That is, lives there a 
man who loves his pain ? 

Obs. 10. Verbs often follow the conjunction 
than, without a nominative expressed ; as, 
" Not that any thing occurs in consequence of 
our late loss, more afflictive than was to be 
expected." u He felt himself addicted to philo- 
sophical specula' ions, with more ardor than 
consisted with the duties of a Roman and a 
senator." — Murphy's Tacitus. 

JVote 1. MetMnJcs is inelegant, and is now 
seldom used by speakers and writers of refined 
taste. 

Note % In the solemn style, contractions 
such as shan't, can't, won't, don't, didn't, 
etc., are improprieties that should be carefully 
avoided. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Wolves prowls in the forest. These books is very 
neatly bound. Those boys has just returned from 
school. The ship with all the passengers were lost. 
A variety of beautiful flowers decorate our Western 
prairies. Every member of the legislature were 
present, when the bill were passed. Thou should en- 
deavor to help thyself. Thou can do the work if 



RULES OF SYNTAX* 169 

thou will. What signifies good opinions, when our 
practice is bad. Frequent commission of sin harden 
men in it. Not one of them are happy. There is 
two or three of us who have seen the work. I have 
considered what have been said on both sides in this 
controversy. Great pains has been taken to reconcile 
the parties. The sincere is always esteemed. We 
may suppose there was more impostors than one. 
Full many a flower are born to blush unseen. So 
much both of ability and merit, are seldom found. 
What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live 
suitably to them? If thou would be healthy, live 
temperately. Though thou cannot do much for the 
cause, thou may and should do something. Disap- 
pointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal 
of hope give consolation. A conformity of inclina- 
tions and qualities, prepare us for friendship. To 
these precepts are subjoined a copious selection of 
rules and maxims. The variety of the productions 
of genius like that of the operations of nature, are 
without limit. Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but 
thou may do something to relieve him. A variety of 
blessings have been conferred upon us. Thou sees 
how little has been done. In piety and virtue con- 
sist the happiness of man. Was you ever in Nash- 
ville ? You was paid to fight against Alexander, not 
to rail at him. 

RULE XIX. 

Intransitive and passive verbs have the 
same case after them as before them, when 
both words relate to the same person or thing ; 
as, Jam he; Thou art the man; Milton 
was a poet; I took him to be Byron; He 
roams a fugitive; Stephen died a martyr; 
Your gold shall become a curse; He was ap- 
15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pointed librarian; Colfax has been chosen 
speaker of the House. 

" By such a change thy darkness is made light, 
Thy chaos order, and thy weakness might" — Cowper. 



OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIX. 

Obs. 1. The verb to be and its inflections, 
take the same case after them as before them, 
more frequently than any other verb in the 
language. The inflections of the verb to be, 
are am, was, been, is, are, art, were, wert, 
wast. Be and its inflection been are the only 
two forms of this verb which can take an 
objective case after them ; and when followed 
by an objective predicate, they are always in 
the infinitive mood ; as, I took him to be the 
man; I believe him to have been my friend. 

Obs. 2. The principal subject of the verb is 
said to be in the nominative case to it, or before 
it ; and the predicate, however placed, is in the 
nominative case after it. The explanatory 
term is always the predicate subject ; as, 
Dante was a sublime poet. Here Dante is 
the principal subject of the verb was, and poet 
is the predicate subject. 

Obs. 3. In interrogative sentences, the pre- 
dicate nominative is generally placed before 
the verb; as, Who art thou? Who is he? 
Who were they ? 

Obs. 4. In some peculiar constructions, both 
nominatives precede the verb ; as, " I do not 



KULES OF SYNTAX. 171 

know who he is." " Inquire thou whose son 
the stripling is." — Bible. 

Obs. 5. Sometimes both terms follow the 
verb ; as, Is he an honest man? Are you the 
man that wrote this letter ? " Art thou that 
traitor angel? art thou he? " — Milton. 

Obs. 6. The principal and predicate nomi- 
natives must always agree in case, but they do 
not necessarily agree in person and number; 
as, jTam the man to whom you spoke. In 
this example, I, the nominative to the verb, is 
of the first person, and man, the nominative 
after the verb, is of the third person. " His 
meat was locusts" Here meat, the principal 
subject of the verb, is in the singular num- 
ber, and locusts, the predicate subject, is in the 
plural number. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

It is me, be not afraid. Thou art him whom the 
angels adore. I suppose it was her that blotted my 
paper. Walter and Edgar are sprightly boys ; it was 
them that spoke so eloquently at the exhibition. 
I believe it to be he and no other. I took the lady 
to be she whom I saw at the concert. I know it to 
be they. Well may you be afraid ; it is him, indeed. 
If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have 
been ? It might have been him, but there is no proof 
of it. I saw one whom I took to be she. Be com- 
posed, it is me. He supposed it was me ; but you 
knew that it was him. Though I was blamed, it 
could not have been me. Who do you think me to 
be? He knew not whom they were. And while it 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is Him I serve, life is not without value. It is us 
that they seek to please, or rather to astonish. 
Whom do they say it is ? 1 would not act thus if I 
were him. Who do you fancy him to be? Was it 
thee that I met on the street? It is not me you are 
in love with. I never dreamed that it was him. 

RULE XX. 

A verb in the infinitive mood may be gov- 
erned by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, 
or pronoun; as, The boy intends to go to 
Trenton ; I taught the lady to write; He is 
able to work; Novella having learned to 
read, commenced the study of geography ; He 
invited me to accompany him. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XX. 

Obs. 1. A verb in the infinitive mood, par- 
takes of the nature of an abstract noun, and is 
often put in the nominative case to a verb; as, 
u To err, is human — to forgive, is divine ; 
"To sleep, is refreshing." 

Ob*. 2. An infinitive verb may be in the 
nominative case after a verb ; as, " To enjoy is 
to obey?* — Pope. *♦ The property of rain is 
to ivet, and fire, to hum" — Shakspeare. 

Obs. 3, A verb in the infinitive mood, gene- 
rally follows the word which governs it , as, I 
intend to go to Philadelphia ; That man is 
able to support himself. 

Obs, 4, In some cases, an infinitive verb 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 173 

precedes the word which governs it; as, "To 
beg I am ashamed." — Bible. 

u To catch your vivid scenes, too gross her hand." 

Thomson. 

Obs. 5. A verb in the infinitive mood, 
though it has no nominative, usually refers to 
some noun or pronoun as its subject ; as, 

M Who taught the nations of the field and wood 
To shun their poison, and to choose their food ?" 

Pope. 

tl A manner clear or warm is useless, since 

We do not try by speaking to convince.'" — Byron. 

Ob^. 6. Verbs in the infinitive mood, are 
sometimes governed by adverbs or conjunc- 
tions ; as, The Bible teaches men how to die ; 
He can do better than to associate with 
you. 

Obs. 7. An infinitive verb may be used ab- 
solutely ; as, u To be> or not to be, that is the 
question." — Shakspeare. "To die; — to sleep; 
— To sleep ! perchance to dream ! " — Id. 

Obs. 8. The use of the preposition for 
before a verb in the infinitive mood, is now ob- 
solete ; a?, He intends for to go. It should be, 
He intends to go. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I have known Lords abbreviate almost the half of 
their words. Please lend me your pen Please study 
the rules of syntax. To take back a gift, or break a 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

contract, is a wanton abuse. We shall find the prac- 
tice perfectly accord with the theory. Please punc- 
tuate your composition so as to make sense. If you 
drain your land, you will find it produce much more 
abundantly. They may dispense with the laws to 
favor their friends, or secure their office. Your mode 
of reasoning tends to obscure, rather than elucidate 
the subject. It is not your business to form, but 
copy characters. Please say nothing about the matter. 

RULE XXL 

The verbs which follow bid, dare, need, make, 
see, hear, feel, help, let, and their participles, are 
generally in the infinitive mood, without the 
sign to expressed ; as, He bids me stay ; I dare 
meet you ; You need not trouble yourself; The 
teacher made the boy read; I saw him fall; 
I heard him speak ; I felt the house shake; I 
will help him do the work ; Let the child have 
the toy ; While hearing his class recite he was 
interrupted. 

Note. — To is sometimes omitted after the 
verbs have, behold, perceive, "and a few others. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXL 

Obs. 1. When dare signifies to challenge, it 
is transitive, and is generally followed by the 
sign to expressed ; as, ? He dares me to enter 
the list." But when it is intransitive, denoting 
to have courage, to is usually omitted ; as, * I 
dare engage." — Pope. "I dare say." — Locke. 
"But, my Lord, you dare not do either." — 
Junius. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 175 

Obs. 2. When a verb in the infinitive mood, 
follows another verb in the past time, the per- 
fect tense is sometimes improperly substituted 
for the present ; as, I intended to have gone to 
Chicago last week. This is nonsense. When 
I intended, the intention was to go y not to have 
gone. In the following sentence, the perfect 
tense of the infinitive is correctly used. " A 
free pardon was granted to the son, who was 
hioivn to have offered indignities to the body of 
Varus." — Murpheifs Tacitus. Here the infini- 
tive verb to have offered, denotes a point of time 
prior to that indicated by the verb was known, 
and is therefore proper. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Bid him to go. It is the difference in their con- 
duct, which makes us to approve the one, and to re- 
ject the other. You need not to do it. JDid you see 
him to cross the bridge ? It was a chilling sensation 
which I felt to creep over me. He made him to stay. 
Hear him to read his lesson. I need not to solicit 
him. That barrister need not to be quite so punctilious. 
I felt the floor to shake violently during the earth- 
quake. John, will you help him to carry this box ? 
1 dare not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give 
offence. Lef him to reign like unto good Aure lius, 
or let him to die like unto Socrates. To sing I could not ; 
to complain I durst not. It cannot but be a delightful 
spectacle to God and angels, to see a young person, 
besieged by powerful temptations on every side, to 
acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out 
against the most violent assaults ; to behold one in 
in the prime and flower of his age, that is courted 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all the 
bewitching vanities of the world, to reject all these, 
and to cleave steadfastly unto God. 

RULE XXIL 

Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns ex- 
pressed or understood ; as, Solomon was a wise 
king; Nero was a barbarous tyrant; She is 

benevolent 

M Oh ! lives there, Heaven, beneath thy dread expanse, 
One hopeless, dark Idolater of chance ?" — Campbell. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXII. 

Obs. 1. When an adjective is preceded by 
a finite verb, and is not followed by a noun, it 
generally belongs to the nominative of the verb ; 
as, God is omnipresent; Man is mortal ; He is 
very eloquent 

Obs. 2. Adjectives may belong to verbs in 
the infinitive mood, or to a part of a sentence ; 
as, To lie is despicable ; To die a martyr for 
the truth, is glorious; * To insult the afflicted, is 
impious." — Dillwyn. 

Obs. 3. The comparative degree of adjec- 
tives should be used, when we compare the 
qualities of two persons or things only; as, 
Byron was a better poet than Southey ; The 
Pacific ocean is larger than the Atlantic. 
When more than two objects are compared, the 
superlative degree should be employed; as, 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 177 

Edgar is the tallest of the three ; New York is 
the largest city on the American continent 

Obs. 4. Adjectives that have in themselves 
a superlative signification, should not be com- 
pared; hence, rounder, squarer, more perfect, 
most universal, etc., are improper. 

Obs. 5. When an adjective preceded by 
the, is used without a noun expressed, it should 
generally be parsed as a noun ; as, " Blessed 
are the poor in spirit ; for theirs is the kingdom 
of heaven." — Bible. " The careless and the 
imprudent, the giddy and the fickle, the ungrate- 
/wland the interested everywhere meet us." — 
Blair. 

Obs. 6. When the comparative degree of 
an adjective is employed, the former term of 
comparison should not be included in the latter ; 
as, Gold is more precious than all the metals. 
It should be, than all the- other metals. 

Obs. 7. When the superlative degree of an 
adjective is used, the latter term includes the 
former, and the adjective other should be 
omitted ; as, Socrates was the wisest of the 
Athenians," not the wisest of the other Athen- 
ians. 

Obs. 8. Double comparatives and double 
superlatives are improper ; as, "A more serener 
temper ;" "On lesser hopes;" "A worser con- 
16 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






duct ;" " A more superior work ;" " The most 
straiiest sect", S.iy, " a more serene temper ;" 
"less hopes;" "ivorse conduct;" "a superior 
work ;" " the straiiest sect." 

Obs. 9. When two or more adjectives belong 
to the same noun, the least important should 
usually be placed first ; as, A large mellow ap- 
ple, not a mellow large apple. An agreeable 
young lady, not a young agreeable lady. 

Obs. 10. In poetry, adjectives are some- 
times used adverbially ; as, 

" To thee I bend the knee ; to thee my thoughts 
Continual climb." — Thomson. 

but in prose, the adverbial use of the adjective 
is a vulgar error ; as, He talks fluent ; She 
walks very graceful We should say, he talks 
fluently ; she walks very gracefully. 

Obs. 11. In such expressions as deep blue 
cloth, bitter cold weather, red hot iron, deep 
sea green sash, etc., the modifying words should 
be taken together, and parsed as a compound 
adjective, whether they are joined by a hyphen 
or not. 

Obs. 12. When nouns are placed before 
other nouns to qualify them, they become 
adjectives ; as, A silver cup ; an iron chest ; a 
steel blade. 

Obs. 13. An adjective is sometimes used 
independently of a noun, when joined to a 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 179 

participle or to an infinitive verb ; as, " The 
desire of being happy reigns in all hearts;" 
• To be good is to be happy" 

Obs. 14. We should place adjectives next 
to the nouns which we wish to qualify ; as, A 
cup of cold water j not a cold cup of water ; A 
glass of good wine, not a good glass of wine, A 
field of good com, not a good field of corn. 

KULE XXIII. 

Adjectives denoting unity, belong to nouns in 
the singular number only ; as, A man, this man, 
that man, each man, every man, one man, an- 
other man. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIII. 

Obs. 1. This here and that there for this and 
that , are vulgar errors ; as, This here is a red 
apple ; for, this is a red apple ; That there is a 
fine horse ; for, that is a fine horse. 

Obs. 2. An adjective denoting unity is 
often placed before one implying plurality, to 
denote a collective number ; as, A dozen oran- 
ges ; One hundred horses ; Every six months ; 
Every twenty years. 

Obs. 3. The adjective many may belong to 
a noun in the singular number, when it is im- 
mediately followed by an or aj as, Many an 
hour is lost in idleness. 

11 Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air." — Gray. 



3 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 4. When objects are contrasted, the 
demonstrative adjectives this and these refer 
to the latter term mentioned, and that and 
those to the former ; as, 

" And reason raise o'er instinct as you ca n, 
In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 

" Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! 
My peace with these, my love with those /" — Burns. 

Obs. 5. The distributive adjectives either 
and neither, relate to two things only ; as, I 
will be satisfied with either of the two ; I will 
take neither of the two. When we refer to 
more than two things, any and none should 
be used ; as, Any of the three ; None of the 
four. 

Obs. 6. The noun means has the same 
form in both numbers ; it should therefore be 
used with an adjective denoting unity or plu- 
rality according to the sense ; as, " By this 
means one great restraint from doing evil, 
would be taken away." — Tillotson. " He by 
that means preserves his superiority." — Ad- 
dison. " He looked on money as a necessary 
means of maintaining and increasing power." 
— Lord Lyttleton. "John was too much in- 
timidated not to embrace every means afforded 
for his safety." — Goldsmith. He was indus- 
trious and economical, and by these means 
became rich. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 181 



FALSE SYNTAX. 



I have not been to London this five years. I have 
not heard from my friend this two years. Few of us 
would be less corrupted than kings are, were we, like 
them, beset with flatterers, and poisoned with that 
vermin. The nature of that riches and long-suffering 
is, to lead to repentance. During that sixty long 
days of severe suffering, he was never known to utter 
a word of complaint. Are you not ashamed to have 
no other thoughts than that of amassing wealth, and 
of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities ? They 
will rejoice when this good tidings reach them. Many 
things are not that which they appear to be. But it 
geems this literati had been very ill rewarded for 
their ingenious labors. Those boys have been play- 
ing this three hours. Where did you find that scis- 
sors ? They have not much provisions on hand at 
present. I have not seen my brothers this six weeks. 
It distinguishes still more remarkably the feelings of 
the former from that of the lattter. 

They could not speak ; and so I left them both, 
To bear this tidings to the bloody king. 

RULE XXIV. 

Adjectives implying plurality, belong to 
nouns in the plural number ; as, These boys, 
those boys, six men, ten fathoms, fifty feet. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIV. 

Obs. 1. Numeral adjectives which denote 
plurality, are often improperly used with sin- 
gular nouns ; as, Five pound, for five pounds ; 
Ten mile , for ten miles; Twenty bushel, for 
twenty bushels; Forty foot long, for forty 
feet long- 



182 EXGLTSH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 2. Such expressions as Twenty sail 
of vessels ; Forty yoke of oxen ; Fifty head 
of cattle ; are authorized by good usage. 

Obs. 3. The personal pronoun them is often 
substituted for the demonstrative adjective 
those; as, Give me them books, for give me 
those books ; Them trees are very beautiful, 
for those trees are very beautiful. This use of 
them is grossly vulgar. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He prefers these kind to those kind. The sound 
is fifty fathom deep. The boat carries forty ton. I 
am not recommending these kind of sufferings ter 
your liking. The house is thirty foot wide, and sixty 
foot in length. The five bushel of wheat should weigh 
at least three hundred pound. That horse can travel 
seven mile in an hour. The hotel is four story high. 
You must not trouble yourself about those sort of 
things. I fancy they are these kind of gods, which 
Horace mentions. In these kind of expressions 
some words seem to be understood. You may be 
assured these kind of practices will lead to ruin. 
Those sort of trees never bear any fruit. Please to 
bring me that ten-foot measure. This country is 
twenty mile square. I wish to purchase six ton of 
hay. Those set of books was a valuable present. 
These sort of fellows are very dangerous associates. 
The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred 
fathom in depth. 

RULE XXV. 

Participles refer to nouns or pronouns ex- 
pressed or understood ; as, Seeing him from the 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 183 

window, /hailed him; I saw the ball thrown 
over the house ; Having finished my letter, 
/retired to rest; "Having slept during the 
night, the traveler went on his way." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXV. 

Obs. 1. Participles often relate to some- 
thing understood ; as, u Granting this to be 
true, what is to be inferred from it ?" — Mur- 
ray. That is, I granting, or we granting. 
a The very chin was, modestly speaking, as 
long as my whole face." That is, I modestly 
speaking, say, as long as my whole face. 

Obs. 2. Participles sometimes become nouns ; 
as, m Rising early is healthy ;" Upon hear- 
ing the arguments, they were convinced ; By 
the reading of novels, the mind is often viti- 
ated. 

Obs. 3. The participle is sometimes im- 
properly used, where an infinite verb should be 
employed ; as, He intends going home to-mor- 
row; I remember seeing him last week. Much 
better, He intends to go home to-morrow. I 
remember to have seen him last week. 

Obs. 4. When the present participle is pre- 
ceeded by a or the, it assumes the character 
of a noiin, and is followed by the preposition 
of; as, * This was a betraying of the trust 
committed to him ;" " By the observing of 



184 ENGLISH GTUMMAR. 

truth, you will command respect ;" " The mid- 
dle station of life seems to be advantageously 
situated for the gaining of wisdom." 

Obs. 5. In connection with an infinitive 
verb, the participle is sometimes taken ab- 
stractly ; that is, without reference to any par- 
ticular subject ; as, * To keep always praying 
aloud is plainly impossible." 

Obs. 6. Participles generally follow the 
subjects to which they relate, but they are 
sometimes placed before them j as, "Admired 
and applauded, lie became vain." 

Obs. 7. The imperfect tense of irregular 
verbs, should never be used instead of the per- 
fect participle ; as, Fe has fell, for he has 
fallen; He has came, for he has come; He 
has went, for he has gone; He has saw, for 
he has seen; The letter was ivrote, for the 
letter was ivritten; He was chose, for he was 
chosen. 

Obs. 8. The perfect participles of irregular 
verbs, are sometimes improperly used in the 
imperfect tense ; as, I done, for I did; I come, 
for I came ; I seen, for I saw. These are com- 
mon errors, and should be carefully avoided. 

RULE XXVI. 

Participles retain the regimen of the verbs 
from which they are derived ; as, Knowing 



HULES OF SYNTAX. 185 

the man to be prof me, I avoided him ; The 
speaker having finished his address, sat 
down. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXVI. 

Obs. 1. A transitive participle should not be 
followed by the preposition of; as, " Keeping 
of one day in seven ; " say, keeping one day 
in seven. 

Obs. 2. Participles of intransitive verbs, 
have the same case after them as before them, 
when both words relate to the same person or 
thing ; as, u Civil government being the sole 
object of forming societies, its administration 
must be conducted by common consent" — 
Jefferson. 

RULE XXVII. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs; as, He read fluent- 
ly ; I saw the army marching sloidy ; Vol- 
taire was shockingly impious; The boy learns 
very fast. 

OBSERVATIONS ©N RULE XXVII. 

Obs, 1. Adverbs sometimes modify prepo- 
sitions ; as, He sat just by the pulpit ; The 
man waded nearly across the river ; We 
ascended almost to the summit of the moun- 
tain. 

Obs. 2. A conjunctive adverb connects two 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

parts of a sentence, and generally modifies a 
word in each; as, I will see him when he 
comes; My letter was written before the 
mail arrived. 

" Fair Thames, flow gently from thy sacred spring, 
While on thy banks Sicilian muses sing." — Pope. 

Obs. 3. A phrase sometimes performs the 
office of an adverb ; as, The poor hare has 
escaped at last; " The many letters I receive 
do not a little encourage me; " "The longer 
we continue in sin, the more difficult it is to 
reform." 

Obs. 4. When yes and yea, and no and nay, 
are employed in answering a question, they are 
generally equivalent to a whole sentence ; as, 
Did he do the work ? Yes. Here yes is equi- 
valent to the sentence, lie did do the work. 
Did he go to Philadelphia ? JSTo. Here no is 
equivalent to the sentence, He did not go to 
Philadelphia. 

Ob,?. 5. A majority of writers consider the 
word amen an adverb ; it is usually placed in- 
dependently at the beginning or end of a prayer 
or declaration, and signifies so be it, or so let 
it be ; as, " Surely, I come quickly. Amen. 
Even so, come Lord Jesus." — Bible. '• Let the 
whole earth be filled with his glory ; Amen, 
and Amen." — Id. 

Obs. 6. Adverbs are sometimes used for 
nouns ; as, " Discourse requires an animated 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 187 

noP — Cowper. Noiv is the time to work. 
" For a great while to come. — Bible. " An 
eternal now does always last." — Cowley. 

Obs. 7. No is sometimes improperly substi- 
tuted for not; as, Tell me whether you will 
read or no. Here no should be not; because 
the verb read is understood after it, and it 
would be very awkward to say, Tell me whether 
you will read or no read. 

Obs. 8. The adverb there, and a few others, 
are sometimes as expletives; as, There are 
seven days in a week ; Well, Julia, I hope you 
are satisfied. In these examples, there and 
ivell do not qualify any thing, and may be 
parsed as pleonastic adverbs. 

Obs. 9. When words which are usually ad- 
verbs, relate directly to nouns, they should be 
parsed as adjectives ; as, " The servant becomes 
the master of his once master;" "This was 
the then state of Popery." — Johnson. The 
use of adverbs for adjectives is generally in- 
elegant. 

Obs. 10. Adverbs often qualify verbs under- 
stood ; as, The Captain was wounded slightly ; 
but the Colonel severely. 

" Lo ! yonder the living splendors play ; 
Away , on our joyous path, away!" — Bryant. 

Obs. 11. The adverb how should not pre- 
cede the conjunction that, nor be used instead 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

of it ; as, He said how that he had been trav- 
eling all day. Expunge how. 

Obs. 12. When but is used in the sense of 
only, it is an adverb ; as, These are but worth- 
less toys. 

" These, as they change, Almighty Father, these 
Are but the varied God." — Thomson. 

Obs.13. Two negatives in the same sentence 
neutralize each other, and are improper, unless 
we wish to affirm ; thus, if I say I have not 
been doing nothing, I affirm that I have been 
doing something. 

Obs. 14. Adverbs are usually placed before* 
adjectives, or adverbs, and after verbs, or be- 
tween the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He 
made a very sensible discourse; he spoke un- 
affectedly and forcibly, and was attentively 
heard by the whole assembly." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

That lady dresses very neat; but she does not 
speak very fluent. That young man acts very awk- 
ward and unbecoming in company. These books are 
bound very neat. A man of veracity will always act 
agreeable to his promise. That lawyer speaks elo- 
quent, but does not reason very coherent. That 
teacher spells accurate, and writes very neat. The 
story has been circulated extensive. Those lazy 
creatures are miserable poor. This is extreme warm 
weather. That licentious inebriate has near ex- 
hausted his father's estate. Some men act very cruel 
toward their domestics. It has been raining inces- 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 189 

eant during the last six hours. Considering his 
limited means, he acts noble and generous toward his 
indigent friends. Articulate more distinct, if you 
wish me to understand you. This has been a re- 
markable cold winter. His health is declining rapid, 
and from his cadaverous appearance, I think he can 
not survive long. 

RULE XXVIII. 

Conjunctions usually connect words or sen- 
tences ; as ? Grace and Sarah learn well. " Let 
not mercy and truth forsake thee." — Bible. 
" Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all 
her paths are peace." — Id. " The wise shall 
inherit glory ; bid shame shall be the promo- 
tion of fools." — Id. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXVIII. 

Obs. 1. Conjunctions sometimes begin sen- 
tences after a full period, denoting some rela- 
tion between sentences in the general tenor of 
discourse; as, "Not unknown are the deeds of 
our fathers. Bid who shall now lead the war 
before the race of kings ? " — Ossian. " Here 
will Fingal lie, amidst the wind of night. And 
if thou, Agandecca, art near, among the chil- 
dren of thy land ; if thou sittest on a blast of 
wind, among the high-shrouded masts of Loch- 
lin *, come to my dreams, my fair one ! " — Id. 

Obs. 2. When particular words are connected 
by conjunctions, they generally belong to the 
same parts of speech ■ as, Maude, Hortense^ 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

and Cornelia are present; That boy can spell, 
ready and write; He is a good, great, and 
wise man. 

RULE XXIX. 

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns 
in the same case ; as, Socrates and Plato were 
philosophers ; " The torch of truth discovers 
malevolence and envy;" He and she are 
preparing their lessons ; " The teacher taught 
her and me to write;" ''Peter and John went 
up into the temple." — Bible. " I have dis- 
patched my correspondents .with fair ivords 
and general civility. — Johnson. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIX. 

Than is sometimes used as a preposition ; as, 
"Alfred, than ivhom, a gretter king never 
reigned ; " " Beelzebub, than whom, Satan 
excepted, none higher sat." — Milton. This 
anomalous use of than is now avoided by our 
best speakers and writers. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Him and I studied Grammar. My brother and 
him are accomplished scholars. You and me have 
gone to the same school. You, him, and me, enjoy 
great privileges for which we should be very thank- 
ful. Her and her sister are studying Botany and 
Algebra. Him and I went to Pittsburg in company; 
but John and him returned without me. I hope 
there will be no difficulty between you and I. His 



KULES OF SYNTAX. 191 

v wealth and him bid adieu to each other. He en- 
treated us. my comrade and I, to live harmoniously, 
They will invite you and I to the party. 

RULE XXX. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and 
tenses of verbs ; as, Dione reads and ivrites 
well ; " Their fondness of allegory dazzled and 
confounded their understanding." — Enfield. 
" If thou sincerely desire and earnestly pur- 
sue virtue, she ivill assuredly be found by 
thee, and prove a rich reward." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXX. 

Obs. 1. When conjunctions connect different 
moods and tenses of verbs, the nominative is 
usually repeated ; as, I have long desired to 
see him, but I fear I shall be disappointed. 
" She was proud, but she is now humble." 

Obs. 2. Some eminent grammarians assert, 
that when conjunctions connect different moods 
and tenses of verbs, the nominative should 
always be repeated ; but the following sentences 
taken from respectable authors, will show, that 
their assertion conflicts with the best usage : 
and, that to this general rule there are many 
exceptions. " For when a man says gold is 
malleable, he means and ivoidd insinuate 
something more than this." — Locke. " Not 
that he is r or ever was$ obliged by these 
statutes to call a new parliament every year." — 



192 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Black. " But whatever they were or are." — 
Burke. " It has opened and will more and 
more open their eyes." — Id. a The whole has 
been done under the auspices, and is con- 
firmed by the sanction of religion and piety." — 
Id. " That they have contributed and will 
probably yet contribute in a considerable de- 
gree to the abridgment of the labor." — Miller. 
"He neither receives, nor can give delight." — 
Johnson. " If I have been born, or dwell or 
have served an apprenticeship in one town." — 
Baley. " I neither do nor can comprehend 
all I would." — Locke. " These are the foun- 
tains of knowledge, from whence all the ideas 
we have or can have do spring." — Id. 

Obs. 3, Conjunctions implying contingency 
or doubt, are usually followed by the subjunc- 
tive mood ; as, If he come to-morrow, I will 
pay Him his wages ; If you go to Europe, I will 
accompany you. 

Obs. 4. The conjunctions if though, un- 
less, whether, etc., are generally followed by 
the subjunctive mood; as, "J/'thou be afflict- 
ed, repine not ; " "I will respect him, though 
he chide me ; " " He cannot be clean, unless 
he wash himself; " Whether it were I or 
they, so we preach." But these conjunctions, 
when the sentence does not imply doubt, should 
be followed by the indicative mood ; as, " He 
is not proud, if he is rich ; " "Though he is 
high, he hath respect to the lowly." 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 193 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

Jessie can write a smooth hand, but spells badly. 
If be prefer a yirtuous life, and is sincere in bis pro- 
fessions, be will succeed. He has gone borne, but 
will return to-morrow. To deride tbe miseries of 
the unbappy is inhuman ; and wanting compassion 
towards them is unchristian. He has done his duty, 
and should be rewarded. The parliament addressed 
the king, and has been prorogued the same day. 
Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to for- 
give him ? Professing regard and to act differently, 
discovers a base mind. I have seen him several 
times, but cannot remember his name. He will go to 
Washington to-morrow, but does not intend to remain 
there more than a week. Anger glances into the 
breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom 
of fools. There are a few who have kept their in- 
tegrity to the Lord, and prefer his truth to all other 
enjoyments. If he understands the business, and 
attends to it, he will succeed. 

RULE XXXI. 

The case of a noun or a pronoun following 
than or as, often depends on a verb or a 
preposition understood; as, She reads better 
than her sister, that is, she reads better than 
her sister reads. " He loves his money more 
than his honor" that is, he loves his money- 
more than he loves his honor. That boy can 
run as fast as his brother, that is, that boy can 
run as fast as his brother can run. " The sen- 
timent is well expressed by Plato, but much 
better by Solomon than him,' 1 that is, than 
by him. 
17 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXXI. 

Obs. 1. Some grammarians erroneously 
teach that as, when it is connected with such, 
many, or same, is a relative pronoun ; as, Let 
such as presume to advise others, look well to 
their own conduct. This sentence is elliptical, 
and when all the words are supplied, it will 
read thus ; Let such persons as those persons 
are, who presume to advise others, look well to 
their own conduct. 

Obs. 2. There are some conjunctions and 
adverbs which generally require particular cor- 
respondents in the subsequent parts of the 
sentences in which they they are used ; as, 

1. Though — yet; as, " Though he was rich, 
yet for our sakes he became poor." 

2. Whether — or; as, " Whether he will go or 
not, I cannot tell." 

3. Either — or; as, " I wiH either send it, or 
bring it myself." 

4. Neither — nor ; as, John the Baptist came 
neither eating bread nor drinking wine." — Bible. 

5. As — as; expressing a comparison of 
equality ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister. 

6. As — so; expressing a comparison ; as, 
"As the stars, so shall thy seed be." " As the 
one dieth, so dieth the other." 

7. So — as; as, "To see Thy glory so as I 
have seen Thee in the sanctuary." — Bible. 
" Pompey was not so great a man as Caesar." 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 195 

8. So — that; expressing a consequence ; as, 
" He was so fatigued, that he could scarcely 
move." 

9. Bather — than; as, "He would consent 
rather than suffer." 

10. Not only — but also ; as " He was not only 
prudent, but he was also industrious." 

Obs. 3. In like manner, certain conjunc- 
tions sometimes correspond with certain adjec- 
tives; as, 

• 1. Other — than; as, " Were it any other than 
he, I would not submit." 

2. Same — as; as, "Your paper is of the 
same quality as mine." 

3. Such — #s;as, "It was such a scene as 
rarely occurs." 

4. Such — that; as, "His engagements are 
such, that he cannot attend." 

Obs. 4. When two conjunctions are used as 
correspondents, they form but one connection ; 
as, " Neither he nor I was there ;" "Though his 
eloquence were equal to that of Demosthenes, 
yet would it not be sufficient to convince me of 
the justice of his cause." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

They are much greater gainers than we. That lady 
can read better than him. I think you are taller than 
her. They can write faster than him; but he is a 
better grammarian than them. He is as good as ker, 



196 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

They are as able to provide for themselves as him. — 
Your brother cannot run as fast as me. These roses 
are much more beautiful than them which Jane gave 
me yesterday. 

RULE XXXII. 

Prepositions show the relation between their 
antecedents and the nouns or pronouns which 
they govern ; as, I saw a man on the bridge; I 
visited him at his new residence; Rosamond 
goes to school; I heard him talking to his 
friend; God is kind to his creatures; Madeline 
has re id almost through the Bible. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXXIL 

Obs. 1. Every preposition must have an 
antecedent and a subsequent term of relation ; 
and in parsing, both terms should be named ; 
as, the boy walked across the street Here 
walked is the antecedent term of relation ; and 
street is the subsequent term. The noun or 
pronoun governed by a preposition, is always 
the subsequent term of its relation. 

Obs. 2. The antecedent term of a preposi- 
tional relation, may be a noun, a pronoun, a 
verb, a participle, an adjective, or an adverb ; 
as, I laid the book on the table ; I was intro- 
duced to him in Cincinnati ; Whitfield was ad- 
mired for his eloquence ; I heard Ada reading 
to her sister ; Some men are very cruel to their 
inferiors; We should deal honestly with all 
men. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 197 

Obs. 3. The preposition usually precedes 
the word which it governs ; as, "lama stran- 
ger in the earth ; hide not thy commandments 
from me" — Bible. 

Obs. 4. In the familiar style, a preposition 
is sometimes improperly placed after the word 
which it governs ; as, Whom did he give the 
book to I We should say, To whom did he give 
the book ? 

RULE XXXIII. 

Interjections have no dependence on other 
words in construction ; as, "Ah ! they are 
dead !" "Alas ! wretch ! what will be your 
end I" 

" Oh ! quit the shadow, catch the prize, 
Which not all India's treasure buys !" • 

Dr. Johnson. 

M blindness to the future ! kindly given, 
That each may fill the circle marked by Heaven. " 

Pope. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE 
SYNTAX. 

Such falsehood and treachery is detestable in any 
man. Drunkenness and gaming leads to inevitable 
ruin. They that are pious and upright, God will 
save. And there is stamped upon their Imaginations 
Idea's that follow them with Terror and AfFright- 
ment. Those sort of goods will never sell in this 
community. Sir Francis Drake, him who circumnavi- 
gated the globe, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was 
born in 1545. The earth's circumference is about 
twenty-five thousand miles. The strait is two mile 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wide, and eighty fathom deep. Nearly the whole of 
this twenty -five millions of dollars, is a dead loss to 
the nation. Of old, every one took upon them to 
write what happened in their own time. Neither 
Mary nor her sister are at home to-day. The friend 
who I visited yesterday is a profound scholar. Who 
did you sell your farm to ? The English nobility is 
very wealthy and influential. At present, the nation 
are not in a very prosperous condition. It was theni 
that did all this mischief. Joseph is a much better 
orator than him. She has studied grammar and 
mathematics ; and intends to study history and physi- 
ology. When did you and him arrive ? Whom do 
you suppose will be appointed to address the meeting? 
The multitude wondered when they saw the lame to 
walk and the blind to see. He don't do nothing at 
the proper time. I intended to have gone to see him 
before this. He is a new created knight, and his 
dignity sits awkward on him. He showed a spirit of 
forgiveness, and a magnanimity, that does honor to 
human nature. All the power of ridicule, aided by 
the desertion of friends, and the diminution of his 
estate, were not able to shake his principles. I have 
received a letter from my uncle, he that was here last 
week. Gentlemens houses are seldom without va- 
riety of company. The Eussian empire is more ex- 
tensive than any government in the world. That lady 
is very amiable ; she never speaks severe or contemp- 
tuous. Him having finished his business in London, 
we returned to Liverpool. There are a great variety 
of serpents in the tropical regions. I scarce know 
what course to pursue in this emergency. Constanti- 
nople was once the point, in which was concentrated 
the learning and science of the world. Though, at 
first, he begun to defend himself, yet, when the 
proofs appeared against him, he dared not any longer 
to contend. The court were not aware of the conse- 
quences, when they gave the order. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 199 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson 1. — Parsing. 

" Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne, 
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumb'ring world. 
Silence how dead ! and darkness how profound ! 
Nor eye nor list'ning ear an object finds; 
Creation sleeps. 'Tis as the general pulse 
Of life stood still, and Nature made a pause ; 
An awful pause ! prophetic of her end. 
And let her prophecy be soon fulfilled : 
Fate ! drop the curtain ; I can lose no more." 

Young, 

Lesson 2. — Parsing. 

" At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow 
Spans with light arch the glittering hills below, 
Why to yon mountain turns the musing eye 
Whose sun-bright summit mingles with the sky ? 
Why do those cliffs of shadowy tint appear 
More sweet than all the landscape smiling near ? — 
'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
And robes the mountain in its azure hue. 
Thus, with delight, we linger to survey 
The promised joys of life's unmeasured way ; 
Thus, from afar, each dim-discovered scene 
More pleasing seems than all the past hath been; 
And every form that fancy can repair 
From dark oblivion, glows divinely there." 

Campbell. 

Lesson 3. — Parsing. 

" What is the end of fame? 'tis but to fill 
A certain portion of uncertain paper ; 
Some liken it to climbing up a hill, 

Whose summit (like all hills) is lost in vapor : 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. 

For this men write, speak, preach, and heroes kill ; 

And bards burn what they call their " midnight 

taper,' ' 

To have, when the original is dust, 

A name, a wretched picture, and worse bust. 

What are the hopes of man ? old Egypt's king 

Cheops, erected the first pyramid, 
And largest, thinking it was just the thing, 

To keep his memory whole and mummy hid ; 
But somebody or other, rummaging, 

Burglariously broke his coffin's lid : 
Let not a monument give you or me hopes, 
Since not a pinch of dust remains of Cheops." 

Byron. 

Lesson 4. — Parsing. 

li The quality of mercy is not strained ; 
It droppeth as the gentle dew from heaven 
Upon the place beneath : it is twice blessed ; 
It blesseth him that gives and him that takes. 
'Tis mightiest in the mightiest : it becomes 
The throned monarch better than his crown : 
His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, 
The attribute to awe and majesty, 
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings 
But mercy is above this sceptred sway : 
It is enthroned in the heart of kings ; 
It is an attribute to God himself; 
And earthly power doth show most like to God'a 
When mercy seasons justice." — Shahspeare. 

Lesson 5. — Parsing. 

" Fair land ! of chivalry the old domain, 
Land of the vine and olive, lovely Spain ! 
Though not for thee with classic shores to vie, 
In charms that fix the enthusiast's pensive eye ; 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 201 

Yet hast thou scenes of beauty richly fraught 
With all that wakes the glow of lofty thought ; 
Fountains, and vales, and rocks, whose ancient name 
High deeds have raised to mingle with their fame. 
Those scenes are peaceful now : the citron blows, 
Wild spreads the myrtle where the brave repose. 
No sound of battle swells on Douro's shore, 
And banners wave on Ebro's banks no more. 
But who, unmoved, unawed, shall coldly tread 
Thy fields, that sepulchre the mighty dead ? 
Blessed be that soil ! where England's heroes share 
The grave of chiefs, for ages slumbering there ; 
Whose names are glorious in romantic lays, 
The wild, sweet chronicles of elder days, 
By goatherd lone, and rude serrado sung, 
Thy cypress dells and vine-clad rocks among. 
How oft those rocks have echoed to the tale 
Of knights who fell in Roncesvalles' vale ; 
Of him, renowned in old heroic lore, 
First of the brave, the gallant Campeador." — ITemans. 

Lesson 6.— Parsing. 

" How shocking must thy summons be, O Death ! 
To him that is at ease in his possessions ! 
Who counting on long years of pleasure here, 
Is quite unfurnished for the world to come i 
In that dread moment, how the frantic soul 
Raves round the walls of her clay tenement j 
Runs to each avenue, and shrieks for help : 
But shrieks in vain ! How wishfully she looks 
On all she's leaving, now no longer hers ! 

A little longer ; yet a little longer ; 
O might she stay to wash away her stains, 
And fit her for her passage ! Mournful sight 1 
Her very eyes weep blood ; and every groan 

18 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

She heaves is big with horror. But the foe, 
Like a stanch murd'rer, steady to his purpose, 
Pursues her close, thro' ev'ry lane of life; 
Nor misses once the traek I but presses on, 
Till, forced at last to the tremendous verge, 
At once she sinks to everlasting ruin/' — Blair. 

Lesson 7.— -Parsing. 

u Look then abroad through nature to the range 
Of planets, suns, and adamantine spheres, 
Wheeling, unshaken, thro' the void immense • 
And speak, O man I does this capacious scene, 
With half that kindling majesty dilate 
Thy strong conception, as when Brutus rose, 
Refulgent, from the stroke of Caesar's fate, 
Amid the crowd of patriots ; and his arm 
Aloft extending, like eternal Jove, 
When guilt brings down the thunder, called aloud 
On Tully's name, and shook his crimson steel, 
And bade the father of his country hail ? 
For, lo ! the tyrant prostrate on the dust, 
And Rome again is free. — Akendde. 



Lesson 8.— Parsing. 

* Aurora now, fair daughter of the dawn, 
Sparkled with rosy light the dewy lawn ; 
When Jove convened the senate of the skies, 
Where high Olympus' cloudy tops arise. 
The sire of gods his awful silence broke, 
The heavens attentive trembled as he spoke : 

Celestial states, immortal gods ! give ear ; 
Hear our decree, and reverence what ye hear; 
The fixed decree, which not all heaven can move ; 
Thou, Fate ! fulfill it ; and, ye powers ! approve ! 






ANALYTICAL EXEECISES. 203 

What god but enters yon forbidden field, 
Who yields assistance, or but wills to yield, 
Back to the skies with shame he shall be driven, 
Gashed with dishonest wounds, the scorn of heaven : 
Or far, oh far from steep Olympus thrown, 
Low in the dark Tartarean gulf shall groan, 
With burning chains fixed to the brazen floors, 
And locked by hell's inexorable doors ; 
As deep beneath the infernal centre hurled, 
As from the centre to the ethereal world." 

Pope's Homer. 

Lesson 9. — Parsing. 

" From frozen climes, and endless tracts of snow, 
From streams that northern winds forbid to flow, 
What present shall the Muse to Dorset bring, 
Or how, so near the Pole, attempt to sing? 
The hoary winter here conceals from sight 
All pleasing objects that to verse invite. 
The hills and dales, and the delightful woods, 
The flow'ry plains, and silver-streaming floods, 
By snow disguised, in bright confusion lie, 
And with one dazzling waste fatigue the eye. 
No gentle breathing breeze prepares the spring, 
No birds within the desert region sing. 
The ships, unmoved, the boist'rous winds defy, 
While rattling chariots o'er the ocean fly, 
The vast leviathan wants room to play, 
And spout his waters in the face of day." — Phillips* 

Lesson 10. — Parsing. 

" Blest be that hand divine, which gently laid 
My heart at rest beneath this humble shed ! 
The world's a stately bark, on dang'rous seas, 
With pleasure seen, but boarded at our peril. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Here, on a single plank, thrown safe ashore, 
I hear the tumult of the distant throng, 
As that of seas remote, or dying storms ; 
And meditate on scenes more silent still ; 
Pursue my theme, and fight the fear of death. 
Here like a shepherd, gazing from his hut, 
Touching his reed, or leaning on his staff, 
Eager ambition's fiery chase I see. 
I see the circling hunt of noisy men 
Burst law's enclosure, leap the mounds of right, 
Pursuing and pursued, each other's prey ; 
As wolves, for rapine ; as the fox, for wiles ; 
Till death, that mighty hunter, earths them all. 

Young. 



Lesson 11. — Parsing. 



41 God of my life, and Author of my days ! 
Permit my feeble voice to lisp thy praise ; 
And trembling take upon a mortal tongue 
That hallowed name to harps of seraphs sung ; 
Yet here the brightest seraphs could no more 
Than hide their faces, tremble, and adore. 
Worms, angels, men, in every different sphere, 
Are equal all, for all are nothing here. 
All nature faints beneath the mighty name 
Which nature's works, thro' all her parts, proclaim. 
I feel that name my inmost thoughts control, 
And breathe an awful stillness through my soul : 
As by a charm, the waves of grief subside ; 
Impetuous passion stops her headlong tide. 
At thy felt presence all emotions cease, 
And my hushed spirit finds a sudden peace ; 
Till ev'ry wordly thought within me dies, 
And earth's gay pageants vanish from my eyes, 



ANALYTICAL EXEKCISES. 205 

Till all my sense is lost in infinite, 

And one vast object fills my aching sight." 

Barbanld* 

Lesson 12. — Parsing. 

11 E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, 
I sit me down a pensive hour to spend ; 
And placed on high, above the storm's career, 
Look downward where a hundred realms appear : 
Lakes, forests, cities, plains, extending wide, 
The pomp of kings, the shepherd's humble pride. 

When thus creation's charms around combine, 
Amidst the store, should thankless pride repine ? 
Say, should the philosophic mind disdain 
That good, which makes each humbler bosom vain? 
Let school-taught pride dissemble all it can, 
These little things are great to little man ; 
And wiser he, whose sympathetic mind 
Exults in all the good to all mankind. 
Ye glitt'ring towns,with wealth and splendor crowned; 
Ye fields, whose summer spreads profusion round ; 
Ye lakes, whose vessels catch the busy gale ; 
Ye bending swains that dress the flow'ry vale ; 
For me your tributary stores combine ; 
Creation's heir ! the world, the world is mine ! " 

Goldsmith. 

Lesson 13 — Parsing. 

11 Mars, hovering o'er his Troy, his terror shrouds 
In gloomy tempests and a night of clouds : 
Now through each Trojan heart he fury pours 
With voice divine from Tlion's topmost towers : 
Now shouts to Simois from the beauteous hill ; 
The mountain shook and rapid stream stood still : 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Above, the sire of gods his thunder rolls, 
And peals on peals redoubled rend the poles. 
Beneath stern Neptune shakes the solid ground ; 
The forests wave, the mountains nod around ; 
Through all their summits tremble Ida's woods, 
And from their sources boil her hundred floods. 
Troy's turrets totter on the rocking plain ; 
And the toss'd navies beat the heaving main. 
Deep in the dismal regions of the dead, 
The infernal monarch reared his horrid head, 
Leaped from his throne, lest Neptune's arm should 

lay 
His dark dominions open to the day, 
And pour in light on Pluto's drear abodes, 
Abhorred by men, and dreadful e'en to gods." 

Pope's Homer. 



Lesson 14. — Parsing. 

" The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews, 
At first faint gleaming in the dappled east ; 
Till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow ; 
And from before the luster of her face 
White break the clouds away. With quickened step 
Brown night retires : young day pours in apace, 
And opens all the lawny prospect wide. 
The dripping rock, the mountain's misty top, 
Swell on the sight, and brighten with the dawn. 
Blue, thro' the dusk, the smoking currents shine ; 
And from the bladed field the fearful hare 
Limps, awkward : while along the forest glade 
The wild deer trip, and often turning gaze 
At early passenger. Music awakes 
The native voice of undissembled joy; 
And thick around the woodland hills arise. 1 ' 

Thomson. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES- 207 



Lesson 15. — Parsing. 

11 Not rural sights alone, but rural sounds 
Exhilarate the spirit, and restore 
The tone of languid nature. Mighty winds, 
That sweep the skirt of some far-spreading wood 
Of ancient growth, make music, not unlike 
The dash of ocean on his winding shore, 
And lull the spirit while they fill the mind, 
Unnumbered branches waving in the blast, 
And all their leaves fast fiutt'ring all at once. 
Nor less composure waits upon the roar 
Of distant floods; or on the softer voice 
Of neighb'ring fountain^ or of rills that slip 
Through the cleft rock, and, chiming as they fall 
Upon loose pebbles, lose themselves at length 
In matted grass, that, with a livelier green, 
Betrays the secret of their silent course. 
Nature inanimate employs sweet sounds ; 
But animated nature sweeter still, 
To soothe ajad satisfy the human ear/' — {Jowper* 



Lesson 16. — Paesing. 

u Oh ! blest of Heaven, who not the languid songs 

Of luxury, the siren ! not the bribes 

Of sordid wealth, nor all the gaudy spoils 

Of pageant Homer, can seduce to leave 

Those ever blooming sweets, which, from the store 

Of nature, fair imagination culls, 

To charm th' enlivened soul ! What tho' not all 

Of mortal offspring can attain the hight 

Of envied life ; tho' only few possess 

Patrician treasures, or imperial state ; 

Yet nature's care, to -all her children just, 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

With richer treasures, and an ample state. 
Endows at large whatever happy man 
Will deign to use them"— Akenside. 



x n** 



Lesson 17. — Parsing. 

11 Declare, Muse ! in what ill-fated hour 
Sprung the fierce strife, from what offended power ? 
Latona's son a dire contagion spread, 
And heaped the camp with mountains of the dead . 
The king of men his reverend priest defied, 
And for the king's offence the people died." 

Popes Homer, 

" Ye subterranean gods, whose awful sway 
The gliding ghosts and silent shades obey : 
O Chaos, hear ! and Phlegethon profound ! 
Whose solemn empire stretches wide around ; 
Give me, ye great tremendous powers ! to tell 
Of scenes and wonders in the depths of hell ; 
Give me your mighty secrets to display, 
From those black realms of darkness to the day." 

Pitt. 



Lesson 18. — Parsing. 

11 Sweet Memory, wafted by thy gentle gale, 
Oft up the stream of Time I turn my sail, 
To view the fairy haunts of long-lost hours, 
Blest with far greener shades, far fresher flowers. 
Ages and climes remote to Thee impart 
What charms in Genius, and refines in Art; 
Thee, in whose hand the keys of Science dwell, 
The pensive portress of her holy cell ; 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 209 

Whose constant vigils chase the chilling damp 
Oblivion steals upon her vestal lamp. 
They in their glorious course the guides of Youth, 
Whose language breathed the eloquence of Truth ; 
Whose life, beyond perceptive wisdom, taught 
The great in conduct, and the pure in thought ; 
These still exist, by Thee to Fame consigned, 
Still speak and act the models of mankind." 

Rogers. 



Lesson 19. — Parsing. 

M Why start at death ? where is he ? death arrived 
Is past : not come, or gone ; he's never here. 
Ere hope, sensation fails : black-boding man 
Receives, not suffers, death's tremendous blow. 
The knell, the shroud, the mattock, and the grave ; 
The deep damp vault, the darkness, and the worm ; 
These are the bugbears of a winter's eve, 
The terrors of the living, not the dead. 
Imagination's fool, and error's wretch, 
Man makes a death which nature never made ; 
Then on the point of his own fancy falls, 
And feels a thousand deaths in fearing one." 

Young, 



Lesson 20. — Parsing. 

11 I have seen Judea's valleys, 
Sailed on Galilee's blue sea, 
Drunk from the old well of Sychar, 
Wept in dark Grethsemane ; 

Olive's sacred hill ascended, 

Looked from wave-washed Carmel's hight, 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Viewed the lofty top of Hermon, 
And Mount Tabor robed in light. 

On the snowy crowned Libanus, 
'Mong his cedars, I have stood ; 

On the Jordan's banks have wandered, 
Felt the Dead Sea's solitude. — Ada Burns. 



PROSODY. 211 



PROSODY. 



Prosody treats of the pronunciation of 
words, the laws of versification and punctu- 
ation. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation depends chiefly upon accent 
and quantity. 

Accent is a particular stress of voice by 
which a certain syllable of a word is distin- 
guished from others. 

Quantity denotes the measure of a syllable, 
or that which determines the time in which it 
is pronounced. 

Ease and euphony in speaking, depend 
principally on correct accentuation and quan- 
tity. 

Emphasis is a particular force of voice, 
given to certain words, in order to render them 
more significant. 

Emphasis has nearly the same relation to 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

words in sentences, that accent has in refer- 
ence to syllables in words. 

In speaking, a multiplicity of emphatic 
words should be carefully avoided; they de- 
stroy the beauty of a discourse, and offend 
the ear. 



VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a cer- 
tain number and variety of syllables, accord- 
ing to particular rules. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of sound 
between the terminating syllables of different 
lines; as, 

" Fair Thames, flow gently from thy sacred spring. 
While on thy banks Sicilian muses sing ; 
Let vernal airs through trembling osiers play, 
And Albion's cliffs resound the rural lay" 

Blank Verse is verse in which the last 
syllables of different lines do not correspond in 
sound; as, 

" At once the four spread out their starry wings 
With dreadful shade contiguous, and the orbs 
Of his fierce chariot rolled, as with the sound 
Of torrent floods, or of a num'rous host" 

A foot is a part of a verse, and consists 
of two or three syllables. 



VERSIFICATION. 213 

A verse consists of a certain number of con- 
nected feet forming one line. 

A Hemistich is half a verse; as, 

"Jove pouring darkness " 

A Couplet or Distich consists of two verses ; as, 

" Thetis once more ascends the blessed abodes, 
And treads the brazen threshold of the gods." 

A Triplet consists of three verses ; as, 

"And there the fallen chief is laid, 
In tasselled garb of skins arrayed. 
And girded with his wampum braid." 

A Stanza or Stave is a combination of several 
verses, varying in number according to the poet's 
fancy, and constituting a regular division of a 
poem, or of a song; as, 

"Amid the storm they sang, 

And the stars heard, and the sea; 
And the sounding aisles of the dim woods rang 

To the anthem of the free." 

i 

All feet used in poetry may be reduced to eight 
kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as 
follows : 

DISSYLLABLES, TRISYLLABLES. 

Iambus - - Dactyl 

Trochee - - Amphibrach 

Spondee - - Anapest 

Pyrrhic - - Tribrach 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and 
the last accented ; as, 

Inflate, deride 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and 
the last unaccented; as, 

Duty, render. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables ac- 
cented; as, 

North wind. 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables un- 
accented ; as, 

" On the tall tree." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the 
two latter unaccented ; as, 

Cannibal, edible. 

An Amphibrach has the first and the last sylla- 
ble unaccented, and the middle one accented ; as, 

Commandment, defender. 

An Anapest has the first two syllables unac- 
cented, and the last accented ; as, 

Intervene, advertise. 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, 

Measurable, numerable. 

OF IAMBIC VERSE. 

Pure Iambic verses have no other feet than the 
Iambic; and are invariably accented on the second, 
fourth, sixth, and the other even syllables. 

1. Iambic verse of one foot with an additional 
short syllable ; as, 

"Disdain | ing, 
Complain | ing." 

We have no poem of this measure in the English 
language ; it is the shortest form of the Iambic in 
use, and occurs only in stanzas. 

2. Of two feet ; as, 

Proud an | gels fell, 
Down in I t5 helL 



VEBSIFICATION. 215 



3. Of three feet; as, 



"To guide [ their way | appears 
The light | of oth J er spheres." 



4. Of four feet ; as, 

" Our voi ) ces took | a drea j ry tone, 
An ech | o of j the dun | geon stone." 

5. Of five feet ; as, 

"O'er gold [ en sands | let rich J Pacto | lUs flow, 
And trees | weep am | ber on [ the banks | of Po." 

This is called heroic measure, and is generally 
used in epic verse ; it is sometimes varied by a 
hypermetrical or redundant syllable ; it may be 
used either with or without rhyme ; as,, 

"Indus | trious [ Hermes | only | was a | wake." 

6. Of six feet; as, 

u A need | less Al | exan | drine ends | the song, [along." 
Which like | a wound | ed snake | drags Its | slow length | 

This form of our Iambic is called the Alexandrine 
measure, and consists of six Iambuses ; it is some- 
times introduced into heroic rhyme, and when used 
sparingly and with judgment, gives a pleasing 
variety ; as, 

11 Can tyrants but by tyrants conquered be, 

And Freedom find no champion and no child, 

Such as Columbia saw arise, when she 

Sprung forth a Pallas, armed and undefiled? 

Or must such minds be nourished in the wild, 
Deep in the unpruned forest, 'mid the roar 

Of cataracts, where nursing nature smiled 
On infant Washington ? Has earth no more 
Such seeds | within | her breast, | or Eu | rope no | 
such shore?" 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. Of seven feet; as, 

" Let not | this weak | unknow j ing hand 
Presume | thy bolts | to throw, 
And deal | damna | tion round | the land, 
On each | I judge | thy foe." 

This seventh and last form of our Iambic measure 
consists of seven Iambuses; they were formerly 
embraced in one line ; as, 

" Let not | this weak | unknow | ing hand | presume | thy 
bolts | to throw." 

OF TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language 
consists of one Trochee and an additional long 
syllable; as, 

" Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace." 

2. The second form consists of two Trochees; as, 

"Wishes | rising, 
Thoughts stir | prising." 

Sometimes this form takes an additional syllable ; 
as, 

" In the days of | old, 
Fables plainly | told." 

3. The third species is composed of three Tro- 
chees; as, 

u Go where | glory | waits thee, 
But when | fame e | lates thee." 

This form frequently admits an additional syl- 
lable; as, 

"Hark! they | whisper | angels | say, 
Sister | spirit, | come a | way." 

4. The fourth form has four Trochees ; as, 

"Round a | holy | calm dif | fusing, 
Love of | peace and | lonely | musing." 

This form seldom takes an additional syllable. 



VERSIFICATION. 217 

5. The fifth species contains five Trochees ; as, 

"All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, 
All that | dwell in | pala j ces or | garrets." 

This form is seldom used, except in ironical or 
facetious composition. 

6. The sixth and last form is composed of six 
Trochees ; as, 

" On a | mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow, 
1 ay a | shepherd | swain and | viewed the | rolling ] 
billow." 

In Trochaic verse, the accent always falls on the 
odd syllables. 

OF DACTYLIC VERSE. 
Dactylic feet are seldom used alone in composi- 
tion ; there are, however, a few specimens to be 
found ; as, 

" From the low | pleasures of | this fallen | nature." 
" Bird of the | wilderness, 
Blithesome and | cumberless. 
Sweet be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | lea. 
Emblem of | happiness, 
Blest is thy | dwelling-place — 
! to a | bide in the | desert with | thee !" 
" Farewell to others, but | never we | part, 
Heir to my ro}^alty, | son of my | heart! 
Bright is the | diadem, | boundless the | sway, 
Or kingly | the death which | awaits us to- | day ! " 

Dactylic feet are seldom perfectly regular. 

OF ANAPESTIC VERSE. 
Each of the fcllowing lines consist of a single 
Anapest : 

"In a sweet 
Resonance 
All their feet 
In the dance 
All thg night 
Tinkled light" 

19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Each of the following lines has two Anapests: 

u Where the sun | loves to pause 
With so fond | a delay, 
That the night | only draws 
A thin vail | o'er the day." 

This form admits sometimes an additional sylla- 
ble; as, 

" He is gone | on the mount | ain, 
He is lost | to the for | est, 
Like a sum | mer dried fount | ain, 

When our need | was the sor | est. 
Like the dew | on the mount | ain, 
Like the foam | on the riv | er, 
Thou art gone | and forev | er ! " 

The following lines are composed of three Ana- 
pests : 

" O ye woods | spread your branch | es Space- 
To your deep | est recess | es I fly ; 
I would hide | with the beasts | 01 the chase, 
I would van | ish from ev j ery eye ! " 

The following lines have four Anapests : 

14 Through the depths | of Loch Kat | rine the steed [ shall 

career; 
O'er the Peak | of Ben Lo | mond the gal | ley shall 

steer ; 
And the rocks | of Craig Roy | ston like i | cicles melt, 
Ere our wrongs | be forgot | or our ven | geance unfelt!" 

In the following there is an additional syllable : 

"If they rob [ us of name | and pursue | uswithbea | gles, 
Give their roof | to the flame | and their flesh | to the 
ea | gles. [riv | er, 

While there's leaves | in the for | est and foam | on the 
MacGregor, | despite them, — shall still flour | ish for- 
ev | er !" 

OF POETIC PAUSES. 

A Pause is an entire cessation of voice, while 
speaking or reading. 

Pauses are of two kinds ; one to mark the sense, 



VERSIFICATION. 219 

the other for melody; these are totally distinct 
from each other. 

Pauses used to mark the sense, are called Sen- 
tential Pauses; those used for melody, are called 
Harmonic Pauses. 

The Sentential Pauses are those indicated by the 
signs used in punctuation ; the principal points 
used in marking the Sentential Pauses, are the 
comma, the semicolon, the colon, and the period. 

The Harmonic Pauses relate to the rhythm of 
the verse ; they are divided into the Final Pauses 
and the Cesural Pauses. 

These sometimes coincide with the Sentential 
Pauses, though they often exist independently, 
that is where there is no stop in the sense. 

The Final Pause takes place at the end of the 
line, closes the verse, and marks the measure. 

Without the Final Pause, the most sublime po- 
etic composition sinks into a sort of half-measured 
prose. For example, take the following from 
Milton : 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that for- 
bidden tree, whose mortal taste brought death into tha 
world, and all our woe, with loss of Eden, till one greater 
man restore us, and regain the blissful seat, sing, heavenly 
muse ! " 

The above is from one of the sublimest poems 
in our language, yet it sounds like mere poetic 
prose. If, however, the Final Pause is observed 
in reading the passage, it will be restored to its 
true state of verse : 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly muse! " 



220 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

These examples plainly show that blank verse 
should be read in such a manner, as to make every 
line sensible to the ear. 

The Cesural Pause preserves the melody, with- 
out, in any way, interfering with the sense. In 
making the Cesural Pause, there is no variation of 
voice, but a mere cessation. 

The Cesura has relation to the melody, as will 
be seen in the following : 

"Ask for what end" the heavenly bodies shine." 

In this line, the Cesural Pause is after the word 
end. 

The Cesura usually falls on the fourth, fifth, or 
sixth syllable of heroic verse. 

On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the 
second foot ; as : 

" The silver eel" in shining volumes rolled, 
The yellow carp" in scales bedropped with gold." 

On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the 
third foot; as: 

"Round broken columns" clasping ivy twined, 
O'er heaps of ruin" stalked the stately hind." 

On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third 
foot; as, 

"Oh say what stranger cause" yet unexplored. 
Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord." 

A line may be divided into three portions, by 
two Cesuras; as, 

u Outstretched he lay" on the cold ground" and oft looked 
up to heaven." 

There is a division of the Cesura called the 
Demi-Cesura, which divides the line into fbu? 
parts. 



FIGURES OF SPEEC1T. 221 

The following lines admit the Demi-Cesural 
Pause, and exemplify it. 

" Glows' while he reads'' but trembles' as he writes." 
"Rea'son the card" but passion' is the gale." 
"liides 7 in' the whirlwind' 7 and directs / the storm." 

The regular return of the Cesura and Demi- 
Cesura, often gives remarkable sweetness to the 
poetic numbers ; as will be seen in the following 
lines : 

"Warms 7 in the sun/ 7 refreshes in 7 the breeze, 
Glows 7 in the stars/ 7 and blossoms 7 in the trees; 
Lives 7 through all life/ 7 extends through 7 all extent, 
Spreads 7 undivided/ 7 operates 7 unspent ; 
Breathes 7 in our souls/ 7 informs our 7 mortal part, 
As full/ as perfect/ 7 in a hair 7 as heart; 
As full/ as perfect/ 7 in vile man 7 that mourns, 
As in 7 the seraph 77 that adores 7 and burns." 

FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

A Figure of Speech usually implies a depar- 
ture from simplicity of expression. 

In figurative language, words and sentences are 
to be understood in a sense different from their 
literal signifxcation ; as, 

"Blossoms, and fruits, and flowers, together rise, 
And the whole year in gay profusion lies." 

Figures of Speech, when used with propriety, 
add strength and dignity to a subject. The sun 
rises, is a common and trite expression ; but the 
idea is sublime when given in the figurative lan- 
guage of Thompson : 

"But yonder comes the powerful king of day, 
Kejoicing in the East ." 

Figures should be judiciously chosen, and should 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

always be adapted to the subject which they are 
intended to illustrate. 

The field of figurative language is very extensive. 
All nature opens her inexhaustible stores, and in- 
vites us to cull figures from every department within 
the range of her vast domain. 

The following are the principal Figures of Speech: 

Metaphor, Antithesis, 

Simile, Synecdoche, 

Personification, Climax, 

Allegory, Paralipsis, 

Irony, Apostrophe, 

Hyberbole, Erotesis, 

Metonymy, Ecphonesis. 
Vision. 

METAPHOR 

A Metaphor is a figure depending entirely on 
the resemblance which one thing bears to another. 
It is very nearly allied to simile or comparison. In 
the following, we have two metaphors. 

" Thy sword is a beam of fire by thy side ; thy 
spear is a pine that defies the storm. " Here the 
language is purely metaphoric. If, however, we 
say, Thy sword is like a beam of fire by thy side ; 
thy spear is like a pine that defies the storm, we 
change the figure to simile. 

SIMILE. 

Simile expresses the resemblance which one 
thing bears to another ; as, " Terrible was the 
gleam of his steel; it was like the green meteor 
of death ;" " Swaran was like the fire of the desert 
in the echoing heath of Grormal." 



FIGURES OF SPEEOn. 223 



PERSONIFICATION. 

Prosopopoeia or Personification, is that figure i 
of speech by which we attribute life and action to 
inanimate things; as, " The wilderness and the soli- 
tary place shall be glad for them : and the desert 
shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." " When 
Israel went out of Egypt, the house of Judah from 
a people of strange language ; the sea saw it and 
fled : Jordan was driven back ! The mountains 
skipped like rams, and the little hills like lambs. 
What ailed thee, thou sea! that thou fleddest? 
Thou Jordan, that'thou wast driven back? Ye 
mountains, that ye skipped like rams ; and ye little 
hills, like lambs? Tremble, thou earth, at the 
presence of the God of Jacob." 

The figure Personification is in very general use; 
it abounds in the Sacred Writings, and in almost 
every species of composition. There is a disposi- 
tion in man, especially when under excitement, to 
animate everything in nature. He addresses the 
rocks, the trees, the mountains, the valleys, the 
rivers, the ocean, the sun, the moon, the stars, and 
a thousand other inanimate objects, as though they 
were really living and rational creatures. 

The following, from Bishop Sherlock, is a beau- 
tiful exemplification of this figure. Natural Reli- 
gion is personified. He is comparing our Savior 
with Mahomet. 

" Go, to your Natural Religion : lay before her Mahomet, 
and his disciples, arrayed in armor and blood, riding in 
triumph over the spoils of thousands who fell by his vic- 
torious sword. Show her the cities which he set in flames, 
the countries which he ravaged and destroyed, and the 
miserable distress of all the inhabitants of the earth. 
When she has viewed him in this scene, carry her into his 



224 ENGtJSH GRAMMAR. 

retirement; show her the Prophet's chamber; his .concu- 
bines and his wives ; and let her hear him allege revela- 
tion, and a div T ine commission, to justify his adultery and 
lust. When she is tired with this prospect, then show her 
the blessed Jesus, humble and meek, doing good to all the 
sons of men. Let her see him in his most retired priva- 
cies : let her follow him to the mount, and hear his devo- 
tions and supplications to God. Carry her to his table, to 
view his poor fare, and hear his heavenly discourse. Let 
her attend him to the tribunal, and consider the patience 
with which he endured the scoffs and reproaches of hia 
enemies. Lead her to his cross ; let her view him in the 
agony of death, and hear his last prayer for his persecu- 
tors : Father, forgive them, for they know not what they 
do ! When Natural Religion has thus viewed both, ask 
her which is the Prophet of God ? But her answer we 
have already had, when she saw part of this scene, through 
the eyes of the Centurian who attended at the cross, fey 
him she spoke, and said, Truly this man was the Son of 
Gooir 

The following from Milton, is also a fine illus- 
tration of the figure : 

"Earth trembled from her entrails, as again 
In pangs, and nature gave a second groan; 
Sky lowered, and, muttering thunder, some sad drops 
Wept, at completing of the mortal sin." 

In the following, the impatience of Adam te 
know his origin, is supposed to prompt the person- 
ification of all the objects he beheld, in order to 
procure information. 

"Thou sun, said I, fair light! 
And thou enlightened earth, so fresh and gay ! 
Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
And ye that live and move, fair creatures tell, 
Tell if you saw, how came I thus, how here ? " 

The following beautiful passage is from Thom- 
son. It is one of the finest specimens of personi- 
fication. 



FIGURES OF SPEECTI. 22$ 

" But yonder comes the powerful king of day 
Rejoicing in the east. The lessening cloud, 
The kindling azure, and the mountain's brow, 
Tipt with ethereal gold, his near approach 

Betoken glad . 

By thee refined, 



In brisker measures, the relucent stream 
Frisks o'er the mead. The precipice abrupt, 
Projecting horror on the blackened flood, 
Softens at thy return. The desert joys, 
"Wildly, through all his melancholy bounds, 
Rude ruins glitter: and the briny deep, 
Seen from some pointed promontory's top, 
Reflects from every fluctuating wave, 
A glance extensive as the day." 

ALLEGORY. 

An Allegory consists of several metaphors, so 
arranged as to constitute a sort of parable or fable. 
As an Allegory is the representation of one thing 
by another which resembles it, it may be viewed as 
a metaphor continued. In the use of Allegory, 
great care should be taken to keep up a clear and 
marked distinction between the figurative and lite- 
ral meaning. Allegory was a favorite method of 
delivering instruction in ancient times; for what 
we call fables or parables, are no other than alle- 
gories. 

The following example of Allegory, taken from 
the eightieth Psalm, is exquisitely fine. 

" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast 
out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room 
before it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled 
the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it: 
find the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She 
sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the 
*iver. Why hast thou broken down her hedges, 60 that 
all they which pass by the way do pluck her ? The boar 
out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of tht 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






field doth devour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of 
Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this 
vine! 7 ' 

IRONY. 

Irony is a figure of speech, by which we wish to 
convey an idea entirely different from the literal 
import of the words which we use. This figure is 
not used to deceive, but for the purpose of adding 
force to our observations. Ironical exhortation is 
a very agreeable kind of figure, which, after having 
set the inconveniences of a thing in the clearest 
light, concludes with a feigned encouragement to 
pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when, having 
described the noise and tumult of Rome, he adds 
ironically : 

11 Go, now, and study tuneful verse at Rome." 

The proper subjects of Irony are vices and follies 
of all kinds. 

The following is a remarkable specimen of Irony, 
taken from the Bible : 

" Cry aloud, for he is a god, either he is talking, or he 
is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he 
sleepeth, and must be awakened." 

The following from Byron may serve as a further 
illustration of this figure : 

" Delightful Bowles ! still blessing and still blessed, 
All like thy strain, but children like it best. 
Now to soft themes thou scornest to confine, 
The lofty numbers of a harp like thine, 
Awake a louder and a loftier strain, 
Such as none heard before, or will again! 
Where all discoveries jumbled from the flood, 
Since first the leaky ark reposed in mud, 
By more or less, are sung in every book, 
From Captain Noah down to Captain Cook ; 
Bowles ! in thy memory let this precept dwell, 
Stick to thy sonnets, man ! — at least they sell." 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 227 

HYPERUOLE. 

Hyperbole or Exaggeration is a figure of 
Bpeech, which consists in expressing much more 
or less than the truth ; as, 

11 He told us that a part of the road from Salinas, in 
Persia, to Julamerk, was so frightful to travel, that a fat, 
spirited horse would, in a single day, suffer so much from 
terror, that before night he would be as thin as a knife- 
blade." 

The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions 
of the size of their leader ; as, 

"I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the 
blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon: he sat on the 
shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill." 

Probably no other figure is used so frequently as 
Hyperbole ; it occurs in all languages, even in 
common conversation. Men of lively imaginations 
are apt to make a very free use of hyperbolical 
expressions ; such as, ruinous as death ; savage as 
a tiger ; swift as the wind ; white as the driven 
snow ; brighter than the sun, etc. Nearly all the 
compliments in common use are Hyperboles of the 
most extravagant character. Speakers and writers 
frequently err greatly by overstraining this figure, 
or by introducing it on improper occasions. In 
the following lines, Dryden compliments King 
Charles the Second at the expense of the sun 
himself: 

That star at your birth shone out so bright, 
It stained the duller sun's meridian light. 

It is impossible to read the following without 
disgust : 

1 found her on the floor 

In all the storm of grief, yet beautiful; 
Pouring forth tears at such a lavish rate, 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






That were the world on fire, they might have drowned 
The wrath of Heaven, and quenched the mighty ruin. 

This frantic exaggeration is from Lee, a cele- 
brated dramatic poet of the seventeenth century. 

METONYMY. 

A Metonymy is a figure by which the cause is 
put for the effect, the effect for the cause, the con- 
tainer for the thing contained, or the sign for the 
thing signified. 

When we say, He reads Homer, we put the cause 
for the effect, meaning Homer's works. On the 
other hand, when we say, Gray hairs should be 
respected, we put the effect for the cause, meaning 
by gray hairs old age. When we say, The kettle 
boils, we substitute the name of the container for 
that of the thing contained. He assumes the 
scepter, is a common expression for entering on 
royal authority, the sign being put for the thing 
signified. 

ANTITHESIS. 

Antithesis is a figure founded on the opposition 
or contrast of two objects; as in the following ex- 
ample : " If you wish to enrich a person, study not 
to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires." 

Antithesis presents objects which are in their 
nature opposed to each other in a much stronger 
light. White, for instance, never appears so bright 
as when contrasted with black ; and when both are 
viewed together. The following examples further 
illustrate this figure : 

" The wicked flee when no man pursueth, but tho 
righteous are as bold as a lion." " He is a fool among 
judges; among fools, a judge." "If you regulate your 
desires according to the standard of nature, you will never 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 229 

be poor; if according to the standard of opinion, you will 
never be rich." 

"He spoke, and on the rampart's hight arrayed, 
His trusty warriors, few, but undismayed, 
Firm passed and slow, a horrid front they form, 
Still as the breeze, but dreadful as the storm." 

When an author indulges very freely in the use 
of this figure, his style is apt to appear too studied 
and labored. 

SYNECDOCHE. 

When the whole is put for a part, or a part for 
the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for 
a genus ; in general, when any thing less, or any 
thing more, is put for the precise object meant, the 
figure is called a Synecdoche or Comprehension. 
We say, for instance, A fleet of twenty sail, instead 
of ships. The horse is a noble animal ; The dog 
is a faithful creature ; here an individual is put for 
the species. We sometimes use the head for the 
person, and the waves for the sea. In like manner, 
an attribute may be put for a subject; as, Youth 
for the young, the deep for the sea. This figure 
of speech is very nearly allied to Metonymy. 

CLIMAX. 

Climax or Amplification is a figure which con- 
sists in hightening all the circumstances of an ob- 
ject or action, that we wish to place in a strong 
light. Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, 
when he says : 

" It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds ; it is 
the hight of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide 
to put him to death ; what name then shall I give to the 
act of crucifvins; him?" 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following is an example of a beautiful climax, 
taken from the charge of a judge to the jury, in 
the case of a woman accused of murdering her own 
child : 

u Gentlemen, if one man had any how slain another ; 
if an adversary had killed his opposer, or a woman occa- 
sioned the death of her enemy; even these criminals would 
have been capital!}*- punished by the Cornelian law; but 
if this guiltless infant, that could make no enemy, had 
been murdered by its own nurse, what punishment would 
not then the mother have demanded? With what cries 
and exclamations would she have stunned your ears ! 
What shall we say, then, when a woman, guilty of homi- 
cide, a mother, of the murder of her innocent child, hath 
comprised all those misdeeds in one single crime ? A 
crime, in its own nature, detestable; in a woman, pro- 
digious; in a mother, incredible; and perpetrated against 
one whose age called for compassion, whose near relation 
claimed affection, and whose innocence deserved the high- 
est favor." 

PARALIPSIS. 

Paralipsis is a figure by which a speaker pre- 
tends to conceal what at the same time he really 
mentions; as, 

"Horatius was once a very promising young gentleman, 
but in process of time, he became so addicted to gaming, 
not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he 
soon exhausted his estate, and ruined his constitution." 

APOSTROPHE, 

An Apostrophe is an address to some person 
who is either absent or dead, as if he were really 
present; as, 

" O father Micipsa ! is this the consequence of thy 
generosity; that he, whom thy goodness raised to an 
equality with thv own children, should be the murderer 
of thy children t 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 231 

An Apostrophic address is frequently made to 
personified objects ; as, , 

"Death is swallowed up in victory: O death! where is 
thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory?" 

There are many beautiful examples of Apos- 
trophe in the poems of Ossian ; as, 

"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of 
Inistore! Bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer 
than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sunbeam at 
noon over the silence of Morven !" " Come, ye friends of 
my youth, ye sofVsounding voices of Cona, bend from your 
gold-tinged clouds, and join me in my song." 

EROTESIS. 

Erotesis or Interrogation is a figure in which 
we put whatever we wish to affirm with great earn- 
estness, in the form of a question ; as, 

"What is there in these days that you have not at- 
tempted ? what have you not profaned ? What name shall 
I give to this assembly ? Shall I call you soldiers ? you 
who have besieged with your arms and surrounded with 
a trench the son of your emperor? Shall I call you 
citizens ? you who have so shamefully trampled on the 
authority of the senate ? you who have violated the justice 
due to enemies, the sanctity of embassy, and the rights of 
nations ?" 

" Wilt thou my judgment disannul ? and must, 
To prove thee righteous, I be proved unjust? 
Hast thou an arm omnipotent, like mine ? 
And like my voice, does thunder burst in thine?" 

ECPHONESIS. 

Ecphonesis or Exclamation denotes some vio- 
lent excitement of the mind; as, 

"Woe is me that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in 
the tents of Kedar!" "O that my head were waters, and 
mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

night, for the slain of the daughter of my people!" "O 
that I had in the wilderness a lodging-place of wayfaring 
men!" 

11 The Desolator desolate ! 
The Victor overthrown ! 
The Arbiter of others fate, 
A Suppliant for his own!" 

VISION. 

Vision is a figure which consists in representing 
something that is past, distant, or future, as actually 
passing before our eyes ; as, 

" I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of 
the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved 
in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps 
of citizens, lying unburied in the midst of their ruined 
country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to 
my view, while, with a savage joy, he is triumphing in 
your miseries." 

"I see before me the Gladiator lie; 

He leans upon his hand; his manly brow 
Consents to death, but conquers agony, 

And his drooped head sinks gradually low; 
And through his side the last drops ebbing flow 

From the red gash, fail heavy, one by one, 
Like the first of a thunder-shower, and now 

The arena swims around him — he is gone, 

Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch 
who won. 

He heard it, but he heeded not: his eyes 

Were with his heart, and that was far away; 

He recked not of the life he lost, nor prize, 
But where his rude hut by the Danube lay; 

There were his young barbarians all at play, 
There was their Dacian mother — he their sire, 

Butchered to make a Roman holiday ! 

All this rushed with his blood. Shall he expire, 
And unavenged ? Arise! ye Goths, and glut your ire!' 






PUNCTUATION. 233 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written 
composition by points or stops, for the purpose of 
conveying to the reader the exact meaning, and 
directing him in the management of his voice. 

The principal stops are the v following : — The 
Comma (,), the Semicolon (;), the Colon (:), the 
Period (.), the Note of Interrogation (?), the Note 
of Exclamation (!), the Parenthesis (()), and the 
Dash ( — ). 

The Comma denotes the shortest pause ; the 
Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the 
Colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and 
the Period, a. pause double that of the colon. The 
pauses required by the other marks, must be deter- 
mined by the structure of the sentence, and the 
position which they occupy in it. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma is used to separate those parts of a 
sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, 
as to be only one degree removed from that close 
relation which admits no pause. 

RULE 1. 

A simple sentence, when it is a short one, admits 
only a period at the end ; as, " Every part of matter 
swarms with living creatures/' 

RULE 2. 
When a simple sentence is a long one, and the 
nominative is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, 
a comma must be inserted before the verb ; as, 
fc4 Too many of the pretended friendships of youth, 
are mere combinations in pleasure ; " To be totally 
20 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in 
character." 

EULE 3. 

The simple members of a compound sentence 
should be separated by commas; as, "When the 
graces of novelty are worn off, admiration is suc- 
ceeded by indifference ;" " Crafty men contemn 
studies, simple men admire them, and wise men 
use them.'* 

KULE 4. 

When the members of a compound sentence are 
closely connected, the comma is unnecessary; as, 
" Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness." 

EULE 5. 

Two words of the same part of speech, when con- 
nected by a conjunction, do not admit the comma 
between them ; as, " The captain and the sailors 
were lost ;" '* Time brings a gentle and powerful 
opiate to all misfortunes;" " The man of order 
catches and arrests the hours as they fly;" "When 
thy friend is calumniated, openly and boldly espouse 
his cause." 

KULE 6. 

When words of the same part of speech are con- 
nected by conjunctions understood, they must be 
separated by commas ; as, " Reason, passion, an- 
swer one great end;" "He is a plain, honest man." 

EULE 7. 

Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, parti 
ciples, or adverbs, with or without a conjunction, 
are separated by commas ; as, " Poetry, music, and 
painting are fine arts ;" " David was a brave, wise, 
and pious man j" u In a letter, we may advise, ex- 



PUNCTUATION. 235 

hort, comfort, and discuss;" "A man, fearing, 
serving, and loving his Creator, lives for a noble 
purpose ;" " To live soberly, righteously, and 
piously, comprehends the whole of our duty." 

RULE 8. 

When words follow each other in pairs, they are 
separated in pairs by a comma ; as, " Hope and 
fear, pleasure and pain, diversify our lives;" 
" Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, 
uniform and consistent." 

RULE 9. 

Words used in a direct address, the nominative 
case absolute, detached affirmations or phrases, and 
other important clauses, are separated from the other 
parts of a sentence by a comma; as, "My son, give 
me thy heart;" "His father dying, he succeeded to 
the estate;" "Providence has, I think, displayed a 
tenderness for mankind;" "The decision of patron- 
age, who was but half a goddess, has been some- 
times erroneous ;" " The sciences, after a thousand 
indignities, retired from the palace of patronage." 

RULE 10. 

A single name in apposition is not separated by 
a comma ; as, " The apostle Paul reasoned before 
king Agrippa." 

RULE 11. 

When a name in apposition is accompanied with 
an adjunct, the adjunct must have a comma before 
and after it; as, "Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, 
was eminent for his zeal and knowledge ;" " Peter 
the Great, Emperor of Russia, did much to advance 
civilization." 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

KULE 12. 

The comma is used to mark antithesis, or remark- 
able points in a sentence, and sometimes to separate 
words closely dependent in construction ; as, " A 
good man will love himself too well to lose, and his 
neighbor too well to win an estate by gaming ;" 
" Prosperity gains friends and adversity tries 
them;" "It is harder to avoid censure, than to 
gain applause.' 3 

"Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full." 

KULE 13. 

All adjuncts or explanatory phrases, at the be- 
ginning, middle, or end of a sentence, are separated 
from it by commas; as, " Vices, like shadows, toward 
the evening of life, grow great and monstrous ;" 
"With gratitude, I remember his goodness to me;" 
" I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to me ;" 
" His talents, formed for great enterprises, could 
not fail of rendering him conspicuous ;" " In your 
most secret actions, suppose that you have all the 
world for witnesses ;' "I saw the Captain, as he 
was called." 

KULE 14. 

When two parts of a sentence have their natural 
order inverted, a comma is placed between them ; 
as, " To God, nothing is impossible ;" that is, 
"Nothing is impossible to God." 

KULE 15. 

The relative pronoun generally admits a comma 
before it, when it is not closely connected with the 
antecedent ; as, " He preaches sublimely, who lives 



PUNCTUATION. 237 

a sober, righteous, and pious life ;" " Self-denial is 
the sacrifice which virtue must make." 

KULE 16 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows a 
verb, and might by transposition be put in the 
nominative case, it generally requires a comma 
before it ; as, " It ill becomes good and wise men, 
to oppose and degrade one another;" " To oppose 
and degrade one another ill becomes good and wise 
men;" "The best preservative of health is, to be 
temperate in all our gratifications ;" " To be tem- 
perate in all our gratifications, is the best preserva- 
tive of health." 

KULE 17 

When a verb is understood, a comma must be 
introduced ; as, " From law arises security ; from 
security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge ;" 
"Reading makes a full man; conference, a ready 
man ; and writing, an exact man " 

KULE 18. 

When the word that is a conjunction, it should 
be preceded by a comma ; as, u Be virtuous, that 
you may be happy." 

KULE 19. 

The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, 
formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, in fact, 
therefore, wherefore, however, besides, indeed, and 
all other words of a similar import, must be sepa- 
rated from the context by a comma; as, 

11 Nay, do not shudder at my tale ; 
Though dark the shade, yet safe the vale; 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Secondly, we propose answering the usual objec- 
tions ;" " Formerly, her southern boundaries ex- 
tended only to the Floridas;" " In the first place, 
we are instructed by him in our relative duties;" 
" Lastly, strive to preserve a conscience void of 
offense toward God and man." 

When, however, these phrases are not important, 
and particularly in short sentences, the comma is 
not inserted ; as, " There is surely a pleasure in 
beneficence ;" " Flattery is certainly pernicious." 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used to separate those parts 
of a compound sentence, which are neither so 
closely connected as those which are distinguished 
by the comma, nor so little dependent as that which 
requires the colon; as, "Hope leads us to the 
grave ; and Charity attends us to heaven ;" " The 
feelings which animated him, were his life; the very 
essence of that existence which he prized;" " The 
orator makes the truth plain to his hearers ; he 
awakens them ; he excites them to action ; he shows 
them their impending danger ;" " Wisdom hath 
builded her house ; she hath hewn out her seven 
pillars ; she hath killed her beasts ; she hath min- 
gled her wine ; she hath also furnished her table." 

Sentences which would require a period, if alone, 
should be marked by the semicolon, when they serve 
to continue an idea ; as, " His learning was pedan- 
try ; his charity ostentation ; his humility deceit ; 
and his w T hole deportment hypocrisy ;" " Heaven 
is the region of gentleness and peace; hell of fierce- 
ness and animosity." 



PUNCTUATION. 239 

OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two 
or more parts, less connected than those which are 
separated by a semicolon, but not entirely indepen- 
dent ; as, " Avoid evil doers: in such society, an 
honest man may become ashamed of himself;" 
" See that moth fluttering incessantly round the 
candle : man of pleasure, behold thy image ! " 
" When we look forward to the year which is 
beginning, what do we behold there ? All, my 
brethren, is a blank to our view : a dark unknown 
presents itself." 

When a member of a sentence is complete in 
itself, but followed by some supplementary remark 
or farther illustration of the subject, the Colon 
should be inserted; as, "Do not flatter yourself 
"with an idea of perfect happiness : there is no such 
thing on earth;" "Rebuke the erring in private: 
public reproof hardens." 

When a semicolon, or more than one, has pre- 
ceded, and a still greater pause is necessary to 
mark the concluding sentence, the m colon is used; 
as, "As we may perceive the shadow to have moved 
along the dial, but did not perceive it moving ; and 
it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody 
ever saw it grow : so the advances we make in 
knowledge, as they consist of such insensible steps, 
are only perceivable by the distance." 

The Colon is often used when a quotation or a 
speech is introduced; as, "I admire this sublime 
passage : ' God said, Let there be light, and there 
was light.' " 

The Colon is of little use in marking the sense 
of a composition ; the difference between it and the 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

semicolon, is so small, that one may be substituted 
for the other, without interfering with the meaning. 

OF THE PERIOD. 

The Period is used to mark a full and indepen- 
dent sentence ; as, " Fear God." " Honor the 
king." " Never neglect the performance of a 
duty." " There were, surely, always pretenders in 
science and literature in every age of the world ; 
nor must we suppose, because their works and their 
names have perished, that they existed in a smaller 
proportion, formerly, than now." 

Abbreviated words should always be marked by 
the period; as, M. S., P. S., A. D., N. B., etc. 

THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION 

The Note of Interrogation is used at the end 
of a sentence which asks a question ; as, 

"To purchase heaven has gold the power? 
Can gold remove the mortal hour? 
In life can love be bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?'* 

The note of interrogation should not be used, 
where it is only declared that a question has been 
asked; as, " The Cyprians asked me, why I wept ;" 
u The people were not a little alarmed at the phe- 
nomenon ; one, however, gathered courage sufficient 
to ask me how I could sail in the air ! " 

THE NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

The Note of Exclamation is used after sudden 
expressions of surprise, or other emotion ; as, 



PUNCTUATION. 241 

"Glenara! Glenara! now read me my dream f* 

" Yet he may live, — away, despair! 
Be calm, my soul! he yet may live; 
To arraign my fate, my voice forbear ! 
O God! my impious prayer forgive!" 

When the interjection oh is used, the exclamation 
point is usually placed immediately after ; but when 
is employed, the point is placed after one or 
more intervening words ; as, 

"Oh! my offense is rank, it smells to heaven;" 
"But thou, Hope! with eyes so fair." 

OF THE PARENTHESIS. 

The Parenthesis includes an explanatory re- 
mark or clause, which might be omitted without 
disturbing the grammatical construction ; as, 

11 Know then this truth, (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below;" 

11 Every planet (for God has made nothing in vain) 18 
most probably inhabited." 

The parenthetical clause should be read in a de- 
pressed tone of voice ; it requires a pause of in- 
definite length. 

OF THE DASH. 

The Dash marks an abrupt transition in the 
sentence ; as, 

" There were no stars — no earth — no time — 
No check — no change — no good — no crime." 

" There was to be a stern death-grapple between Might 
and Right — between the heavy arm and the ethereal 
thought — between that which was and that which ought 
to be;" " Beauty and strength, combined with virtue and 
piety — how lovely in the sight of men ! " 

21 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



OF BRACKETS. 



Brackets are used to inclose a word or sen- 
tence intended to give some explanation, supply 
some deficiency, or rectify some mistake; as, "He 
[Mr. Canning] was of a different opinion." 

OF THE APOSTROPHE. 

The Apostrophe denotes either the possessive 
case of a noun, or the omission of one or more 
letters of a word ; as, Mary's locket ; 'Tis for it is ; 
Lov'd for loved ; Tho' for though. 

MARK OF ACCENT. 

The Mark of Accent is placed over a syllable 
to denote a particular stress of voice required in 
pronounciation ; as, e'qual, equal'ity. 

OF THE CARET. 

The Caret shows where to insert a word or let- 
Washington 
ter that has been omitted; as, I was in A yesterday. 

OF THE HYPHEN. 

The Hyphen is used in connecting compound 
words ; as, silver-smith, corn-field. 

The Hyphen is also used when a word is divided, 
and the former part is written or printed at the 
end of one line, and the latter part at the beginning 
of another. It should in this case terminate the 
first line, and not begin the second. 



PUNCTUATION. 243 



MARKS FOE THE LONG AND SHORT VOWELS. 

The Mark designating the long vowel, is placed 
over it ; as, in Holy. 

The Mark denoting the short vowel is used in 
the same manner; as, in Folly. 

OF THE DIERESIS. 

The Dieresis is used to divide a diphthong into 
two syllables ; as, Creator, aerial ; 

"But kind Eetion, touching on the shore, 
The ransomed prince to fair Arisbe bore." 

OF THE PARAGRAPH fl[). 

The Paragraph is placed at the beginning of a 
new subject or discourse; it is chiefly used in the 
Bible. 

OF THE SECTION (§). 

The Section when used marks a small division of 
a discourse, chapter, or work. 

QUOTATION MARKS (" "). 

The Quotation marks show that the words of 
another are introduced ; as, 

"Faded is Alva's noble race, 

And gray her towers are seen afar; 
No more her heroes urge the chase, 
Or roll the crimson tide of war." 

THE INDEX (fi®*). 

The Index is used to point out a remarkable 
passage. 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE ELLIPSIS. 

The Ellipsis ( — ), or several Asterisks (****) are 
used to denote the omission of some part of a word 
or sentence; as, "K — g for king, c — n for cap- 
tain ;" " I saw him at the th****e." 

THE CIRCUMFLEX (*). 

The Circumflex usually indicates the broad sound 
of a vowel; as, in eclat. 

THE BREVE (-). 

The Breve denotes either a close vowel or a syl- 
lable of short quantity ; as, in rapine. 

THE MACRON (-). 

The Macron denotes either an open vowel or a 
syllable of lonor quantity ; as, in haven. 

THE BRACE (}). 

The Brace is used to unite a triplet, or to con- 
nect several terms with something to which they 
all have a relation ; as, 

" The town and village, dome and farm, ' 
Each gives each a double charm, 
As pearls upon an Ethiop's arm." 

The Asterisk (*), the Obelisk (f), the Double 
Dagger (J), the Parallel (||), and Letters and 
Figures, may be used as references to the margin, 
or bottom of the page. 

OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Anciently Capital Letters only were used, and 
followed one another without being divided into 



PUNCTUATION. 245 

'frords by spaces, or into sentences by points. 
Small letters were not introduced till the seventh 
century, and for centuries after their introduction, 
all nouns were commenced with a Capital. There 
is some difference of opinion among writers, in re- 
ference to the use of Capital Letters in the English 
Language. The following words should always 
commence with a Capital Letter: 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, 
or any other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; and if two sen- 
tences are entirely independent, after a note of 
interrogation, or a note of exclamation ; as, 

11 Behold yon breathing prospect bids the Muse 
Throw all her beauty forth. But who can paint 
Like nature ? Can imagination boast, 
Amid its gay creation, hues like hers 1 " 

3. Words used as the appellations of the Deity; 
as, God, Supreme Being, Most High, Lord, Jeho- 
vah, Providence. 

4. All proper names of persons, places, streets, 
mountains, rivers, lakes, bays, ships, etc. 

5. Adjectives derived from proper names; as, 
Grecian, Roman, American. 

6. Titles of distinction, and common nouns per- 
sonified ; as, General Washington ; Stern Winter 
comes, riding on hyperborean storms. 

7. The first word of a formal quotation ; as, 
" Always remember this ancient maxim, ' Know 
thyself;' " ' 4 The Redeemer said on the cross : 'It 
is finished.' " When a quotation is introduced 
obliquely a capital is not used ; as, " Solomon says 
that ' a wise son maketh a glad father/ " 

8. Every noun and principal word in the titles 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of books ; as, " Goldsmith's History of Animated 
Nature." 

9. The first word of every line of poetry ; as, 

11 Farewell to the land, where the gloom of my glory, 
Arose and o'ershadowed the earth with her name; 
She abandons me now — but the page of her story, 
The brightest or blackest, is filled with my fame." 

10. The pronoun I and the interjection 0. 
Other words beside the preceding, may begin 

with Capital Letters, when they are emphatical, 
or the principal subject of discourse. 



THE END. 



APPLEGATE & COMPANY, 




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In addition to a large and varied assortment of 

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which they have constantly on hand, publish a series of 

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bossed gilt. 

From the Nashville and Louisville Christian Advocate. 
M It would be difficult to find any contribution to Sacred 
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DR. ADAM CLARKE'S COMMENTARY ON THE 
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The increasing demand for Dr. Clarke's Commentary 
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APPLEGATE & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 

THE COMPLETE WORKS OF THOMAS DICK, LL. D 

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This edition is printed from entirely new plates, contain- 
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APPLEGATE & CO.*S PUBLICATIONS. 

ilGLLIFS ANCIENT HISTORY. 

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APPLEGATE & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 

« ■» ■■ * 

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" One hundred and forty years ago, when there were 
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" But we do not design to criticise the book, but have 
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This edition has been carefully revised and corrected, 
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